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THE 


MODERN  GENESIS. 


AN  INQUIRY  INTO  THE  CREDIBILITY  OF  THE  NEBULAR  THEORY, 

OF  THE  ORIGIN  OF  PLANETARY  BODIES,  THE  STRUCTURE 

OP  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM,  AND  OF  GENERAL 

COSMICAL  HISTORY. 


BY    REV.    W.    B.    SLAUGHTER. 


Progress  consists  in  this,  that  with  the  increase  of  knowledge,  the  con- 
ceptions which  have  sprung  from  the  imagination  vanish  ;  and  while,  in 
the  first  periods  of  science,  this  faculty  has  undisputed  ascendency,  at  a 
later  stage  it  subordinates  itself  to  the  understanding,  and  becomes,  to  the 
latter,  a  helpful  and  willing  servant. — Baron  Von  Liebig. 


NEW  YORK: 
NELSON     &     PHILLIPS. 

CINCINNATI: 

HITCHCOCK    &    WALDEN. 
1876. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1876,  by 

NELSON  &  PHILLIPS, 
in  the  Oflice  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


PRE  FACE. 


T  N  the  following  pages  the  nebular  theory 
•*•  is  discussed  simply  as  a  theory  of  modern 
science.  Whatever  relation  it  may  bear  to  the 
account  of  the  creation  given  by  Moses,  and 
referred  to  by  other  sacred  writers,  the  author 
has  chosen  to  ignore  it  altogether  in  his  treat- 
ment of  the  subject.  A  scientific  question 
must  be  settled  on  scientific  grounds  only.  No 
other  treatment  can  be  satisfactory  to  thinking 
men. 

The  title,  THE  MODERN  GENESIS,  is  thought 
to  be  appropriate,  as  the  nebular  theory  is  a 
modern  theory  of  the  origin  or  worlds. 

That  the  advocates  of  this  theory  will  spare 
the  arguments  herein  presented  is  not  to  be 
expected,  nor,  indeed,  desired.  Truth  being 
the  object  of  our  search,  we  shall  welcome  it 

311990 


4  PREFACE. 

though  it  come  through  the  ruins  of  our  own 
fabric.  It  may  be  objected  by  some  that  we 
seek  to  overthrow  a  theory,  yet  do  not  advance 
a  better  one  to  take  its  place.  It  will  be  a 
sufficient  answer  to  say  that  the  sublime  state- 
ments, "  In  the  beginning  God  created  the 
heaven  and  the  earth ;"  that  "  he  spake,  and 
it  was  done ;  he  commanded,  and  it  stood 
fast,"  embody  about  all  the  theory  that  to  us 
appears  to  possess  any  certainty,  and  we  give 
to  this  our  reverent  assent.  Beyond  this  state- 
ment there  is  little  but  very  uncertain  specu- 
lation. Geological  data  may  suffice  for  a  lim- 
ited terrestrial  history,  but,  we  think,  fall 
infinitely  short  of  the  necessities  of  a  cosmical 
history.  Nor  do  the  cognate  sciences  furnish 
data  sufficient  for  such  a  history. 

That  the  whole  field  may  be  re-examined, 
and  definite  truth  be  reached  as  the  result  of 
the  publication  of  this  unpretending  volume, 
is  the  sincere  wish  of  THE  AUTHOR. 

LINCOLN,  NEBRASKA,  October  25,  1875. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAGB 

I.  INTRODUCTION 7 

II.  THE  NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS 17 

III.  CAUSE  OF  ROTARY  MOTION 34 

IV.  RING  FORMATIONS ^ 55 

V.  ACTUAL  VELOCITIES 75 

VI.  DIRECTION  OF  PLANETARY  MOTIONS 88 

VII.  DENSITIES 117 

VIII.  DENSITIES — CONTINUED..  .v 132 

IX.  PLANETARY  HISTORY 143 

X.  TERRESTRIAL  CHANGES 163 

XI.  THE  MOON 191 

XII.  THE  SUN 210 

XIII.  TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  PLANETS 235 

XIV.  PHYSICAL  CONDITION  OF  MARS 264 

XV.  PLANETARY  MASSES 276 


THE 

MODERN    GENESIS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

SO  long  as  the  phenomena  of  nature  con- 
tinue to  be  the  subject  of  human  obser- 
vation, so  long  will  the  human  mind  busy  itself 
with  questions  of  cause. 

But  the  question  of  cause  once  raised,  there 
is  no  end  to  the  inquiry ;  for,  back  of  the  im- 
mediate cause  of  any  phenomenon  a  remoter 
cause  will  be  sought;  and,  if  that  be  found, 
another  still  beyond  will  be  sought  ;  until  a 
final  cause  of  all  will  be  demanded.  Thus,  ever 
searching  ;  ever  gratified  with  new  discoveries, 
yet  never  fully  satisfied  ;  the  instinct  of  curios- 
ity and  the  nobler  love  of  truth  unite  to  make 
man  the  unwearied  explorer  of  all  the  realms 
of  nature. 

The  results  are,  first,  the  accumulation  of  a 


8  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

vast  mass  of  independent  facts ;  and,  after- 
ward, the  grouping  of  these  facts  into  depart- 
ments of  correlated  data,  out  of  which  are  con- 
structed systems  of  science. 

A  sublime  pleasure  rewards  the  discoverer. 
The  discovery  of  a  law  of  nature  must  be  at 
tended  with  emotions  not  less  exquisite  than 
those  which  thrill  the  heart  of  him  who  dis- 
covers a  world. 

In  either  case  the  joy  will  be  the  greater  be- 
cause the  law  and  the  world  are  old ;  for  he 
who  alone,  of  all  the  millions  of  his  own  age 
and  the  millions  of  past  ages,  perceives  a  truth 
which  was  equally  a  truth  before,  and  was 
equally  open  to  them  all,  is  worthy  of  higher 
distinction  than  he  who  is  the  first  to  perceive, 
because  he  is  favored  with  the  first  opportunity. 

Perhaps  a  higher  talent  is  requisite  to  ar- 
range discovered  facts  into  systems  of  science, 
than  to  make  the  discoveries ;  yet  the  number 
of  those  who  have  theorized  abundantly  is  far 
greater  than  the  number  of  those  who  have 
made  important  discoveries. 

It  has  been  the  misfortune  of  science  that 
the  genius  of  generalization  has  often  outrun 
the  patient  gatherer  of  well-authenticated 


IntrodtictioH.  9 

data;  and  thus  theories  have  gained  general 
acceptance  as  scientific  truth  for  a  season,  only 
to  be  disavowed  in  subsequent  times  and  re- 
placed by  other  theories. 

In  nothing,  perhaps,  does  modern  science 
differ  more  from  ancient  science,  than  in  its 
habit  of  testing  theories  by  a  rigid  comparison 
with  known  facts. 

An  original  thinker  may  be  in  danger  of  be- 
coming an  erratic  thinker ;  and,  indeed,  he  is, 
if  he  do  not  constantly  bind  and  limit  himself 
by  established  truths. 

Because  fancies  are  often  mistaken  for  facts 
he  who  theorizes  ought  to  be  not  only  assured 
of  his  facts,  but  able  also  to  appeal  to  them 
as  facts  known  and  acknowledged  by  scientific 
men.  Moreover,  it  is  needful  that  all  the 
known  facts  that  bear  on  the  subject  of  his 
theory  shall  be  consulted,  and  their  testimony 
taken. 

In  no  scientific  inquiry  should  the  scientist 
play  the  partisan.  He  who  argues  in  support 
of  a  theory  because  the  theory,  if  sustained, 
will  support  a  theology,  is  incapacitated  by  his 
bias  for  equitably  weighing  facts. 

He  who  advocates  a  theory  because   it  is 


io  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

hostile  to  a  theology  is  equally  unfitted  for  im- 
partial investigation,  and  is  quite  as  likely  to 
embrace  an  error  as  to  find  a  truth. 

Science  is  knowledge  ;  not  fancy  ;  not  hy- 
pothesis. And  yet  fancy  may  precede  hypoth- 
esis, and  hypothesis  may  become  the  formula 
of  confirmed  scientific  truth.  As  a  hypothesis, 
it  must  be  subject  to  the  ordeal  of  com- 
parison with  kno\vn  facts,  and  if  it  abide  this 
ordeal,  then  it  maybe  installed  as  a  doctrine  of 
science. 

The  old  theory,  that  "The  earth  is  the  cen- 
ter of  the  universe,  and  all  the  heavenly  bodies 
revolve  around  it,"  was  a  hypothesis  which 
could  not  abide  the  test  of  observed  facts,  and 
it  passed  away. 

That  the  sun  is  the  center  of  our  planetary 
system  was  at  first  deemed  but  a  wild  fancy. 
Reflection  clothed  it  with  the  details  of  a 
highly  probable  hypothesis ;  and  the  careful 
observation  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  aided  by 
instruments  of  great  delicacy  and  power,  at 
length  gave  to  the  hypothesis  the  authority  of 
established  truth. 

The  general  structure  of  the  solar  system  is 
no  longer  the  subject  of  debate. 


Introduction.  1 1 

Such,  in  brief,  as  the  following,  are  now 
universally  admitted  astronomical  facts. 

The  sun  is  the  center  of  the  system.  The 
planets  revolve  around  the  sun  in  elliptical 
orbits.  Around  some  of  the  primary  planets, 
secondary  planets  or  moons  also  revolve  in 
elliptical  orbits,  and  accompany  the  primary 
around  the  sun.  The  sun  revolves  on  its  axis. 
Each  of  the  planets  (except  two,  which  are  sup- 
posed to  have  a  similar  motion)  revolves  on  its 
axis.  The  general  direction  of  planetary 
motion  is  from  west  to  east. 

The  periods  of  planetary  revolution  are  math- 
ematically related  to  their  respective  distances 
from  the  sun.  The  sun  is  the  source  of  light 
and  heat  to  the  planets,  each  of  which  shines 
with  reflected  light.  Even  to  the  naked  eye 
some  of  these  grand  movements  of  the  heaven- 
ly bodies  are  perceptible.  The  planet  Venus 
vibrates  in  the  heavens,  alternately  the  even- 
ing and  the  morning  star. 

The  moon  from  evening  to  evening  ad- 
vances to  new  positions  among  the  stars,  and 
Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn  move  slowly  forward 
among  the  constellations.  And  thus  it  has 
been  from  age  to  age. 


i2  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

Gazing  with  admiring  wonder  on  these  glo- 
rious objects,  how  many  have  asked,  "  What  are 
they?  What  is  that  sun?  What  are  those 
moving  lights  ?  What  are  those  fixed  stars  ? 
What  power  upholds  them?  What  guides 
have  those  wanderers  amid  those  distant 
wastes  ?  And  whence  are  they  ?  How  did 
they  come  into  being?  Has  each  a  history? 
What  is  that  history?" 

And  how  few  of  the  generations  that  have 
passed  away  were  able  to  answer  even  the 
simplest  of  these  questions  with  satisfaction  to 
themselves. 

Of  cosmical  theories  there  have  been  many, 
and  yet  there  is  no  discouragement  of  that 
curious  intelligence  which  devotes  itself  to 
cosmical  study.  Indeed,  never  before  did  the 
human  mind  explore  the  universe  with  so  much 
eagerness  in  search  of  facts,  out  of  which  to 
construct  a  cosmical  history ;  never  were  the 
facts  discovered,  cherished  with  so  true  scien- 
tific economy ;  and  never  was  greater  industry 
exhibited  in  marshaling  facts  in  support  of 
hypotheses  and  theories. 

History  is  a  fascinating  study.  Nor  is  the 
fascination  less  when  we  pass  from  the  history 


Introduction.  1 3 

of  nations  and  individuals  to  the  history  of 
things.  What  inquiry  could  be  more  absorb- 
ing than  that  into  the  origin  of  sun,  and 
planets,  and  moons? 

The  history  of  the  universe  must  be  gath- 
ered, if  gathered  at  all,  through  scientific  re- 
search, from  the  observed  condition  of  those 
parts  of  it  which  are  accessible  to  observation. 

Could  we  determine  with  certainty  the  actual 
condition  of  the  sun,  the  planets  nearest  the  sun, 
the  planets  farthest  from  the  sun,  the  moons, 
the  comets,  the  fixed  stars,  and  the  nebula  ; 
could  we  have  a  record  of  these  conditions  at 
times  far  remote  from  each  other;  could  we 
know  what  changes  have  taken  place  in  them 
within  given  periods  ;  could  we  detect  an  order 
of  causation  in  these  changes,  we  should  have 
the  data  for  the  construction  of  a  cosmical 
history. 

But  learned  men  believe,  that  with  far  less 
data  than  these  such  a  history  is  possible. 
Professor  Winchell,  after  referring  to  the  plan- 
etary phenomena,  says  :  "  This  uniformity  of 
conditions,  this  unanimous  obedience  to  one 
code  of  physical  laws,  implies  that  all  these 
bodies  are  urged  onward  through  a  common 


14  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

history,  and  have  probably  had  their  starting- 
point  in  one  common  state  of  matter." 

Certainly  it  would  seem  highly  probable 
that  these  bodies  have  had  a  common  history. 
Each  has,  it  is  true,  its  own  separate  individ- 
uality. But  they  are  kindred  bodies,  mutually 
affecting  and  being  affected  by  each  other. 

They  are  one  great  family,  under  one  benign 
government.  So  related  and  so  balanced  are 
they  that  we  can  scarcely  conceive  that  a 
portion  of  them  could  ever  have  existed  with- 
out the  rest. 

They  may  be  composed,  in  a  great  degree, 
of  the  same  kinds  of  matter,  or  they  may 
greatly  differ. 

As  to  the  present  condition  of  their  matter, 
we  know  that  it  is  not  the  same  in  the  sun 
and  in  the  planets. 

On  the  earth  we  behold  continents  and 
oceans,  mountains  and  valleys,  and  an  atmos- 
phere ;  all  adapted  to  render  it  a  fitting  resi- 
dence for  man  and  other  forms  of  life.  Here 
we  witness  the  phenomenon  of  combustion. 
We  also  witness  the  production  of  heat  by 
other  chemical  combinations  and  by  mechanical 
and  other  agencies. 


Introduction.  \  5 

We  see  the  effect  of  heat  on  the  metals, 
rendering  them  incandescent,  and  even  subli- 
mating them.  We  are  also  familiar  with  some 
of  the  grand  manifestations  of  heat  energy  in 
the  earthquake  and  the  volcano.  A  molten 
earth,  inclosed  within  a  thin  shell,  is  suggested 
to  our  thought  by  what  we  see.  In  our  im- 
agination we  see  the  shell  removed,  and  the 
waves  of  liquid  fire  in  contact  with  the  gases 
that  are  free  ;  and  we  behold  a  flaming  world — 
a  sun — shining  with  its  own  light. 

It  surely  is  not  a  very  extravagant  fancy 
that  pictures  the  world's  history  thus.  Men  of 
profound  learning  have  generalized  from  ter- 
restrial data,  and  have  thought  their  generali- 
zations confirmed  by  the  condition  of  the  sun. 
Just  what  the  solar  condition  is  they  do  not 
know,  but  all  agree  that  it  is  at  least  enveloped 
in  flame,  and  thus  to  us  it  appears  like  a  globe 
of  fire. 

They  have  reached  a  conclusion  as  to  the 
original  condition  of  matter — not  of  that  mat- 
ter only  which  has  been  incorporated  into  the 
planetary  bodies — not  of  that  only  which  is 
now  in  the  sun — but  of  all  matter,  of  which  all 
suns  and  systems  that  occupy  space  are  com- 


1 6  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

posed — and  that  conclusion  is,  that  the  original 
condition  of  matter  was  that  of  the  nebula ; 
and  all  stars  and  all  planets  have  come  out  of 
this  original  condition  of  matter  by  the  opera- 
tion of  a  law  of  evolution. 

Some  call  this  original  matter  "  fire-mist ;  " 
some,  "  luminous  vapor ; "  some,  "  world  stuff." 
All  recognize  it  as  having  a  real  present  ex- 
emplification in  the  nebula,  and  the  theory 
which,  by  it,  explains  the  origin  of  worlds,  is 
called  the  Nebular  Theory. 


Tlie  Nebular  Hypothesis. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  NEBULAR   HYPOTHESIS. 

Discoveries  of  nebula — Simon  Marius — Huygens — Hal- 
ley — Herschell — Lord  Rosse — Kant — Laplace — Winchell — 
Wells — Schedule  of  cosmical  history. 

I"HVO  hundred  and  sixty-three  years  ago 
•*•  (1612)  Simon  Marius  discovered,  in  the 
girdle  of  Andromeda,  an  object  of  unusual  in- 
terest. It  was  neither  planet  nor  star,  but  a 
luminous  fleck  on  the  clear  blue  firmament, 
a  patch  of  fire-mist  in  the  sky.  This  was  the 
first  recorded  discovery  of  a  nebula. 

The  great  nebula  in  Orion  was  discovered 
by  Huygens  in  1656.  The  discovery  filled  him 
with  amazement  and  wonder.  His  spirit  rose 
to  a  pitch  of  ecstasy  as  he  gazed  upon  what 
seemed  to  him  like  "  an  opening  in  the  heav- 
ens through  which  a  brighter  region  beyond 
was  visible." 

Halley,  in  1716,  enumerated  six  nebula.  He 
also  made  a  few  new  discoveries. 

But  it  remained  for  Sir  William  Herschell, 


1 8  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

with  the  aid  of  his  great  telescope,  to  extend 
the  catalogue  to  thousands,  and  to  give  a  new 
direction  to  the  world's  thought  respecting 
them.  With  an  instrument  whose  penetrative 
power  was  one  hundred  and  ninety-two  times 
that  of  the  naked  eye,  he  found  many  of  the 
nebulcB  resolved  into  clusters  of  stars. 

"  The  principle  made  use  of  in  the  case  of 
resolved  clusters  Herschell  conceived  also  ap- 
plicable, through  analogy,  to  groups  not  un- 
folding their  individual  constituents ;  and  he 
computed  that  by  his  four-feet  mirror,  a  cluster 
of  five  thousand  stars  might  be  descried  as  a 
milky  spot,  although  three  hundred  thousand 
times  deeper  in  space  than  Sirius  probably 
is." — NicJwl. 

Fora  time  Herschell  thought  that  all  nebula 
might  be  resolved  if  they  could  be  examined 
with  telescopes  of  sufficiently  high  power. 
This  opinion  his  subsequent  investigations 
led  him  to  abandon,  and  he,  therefore,  classed 
the  nebulce  as  resolvable  and  irresolvable. 

The  resolvable,  when  examined  with  a  tele- 
scope of  moderate  power,  still  appeared  as  sim- 
ple nebula;  but  under  a  telescope  of  high 
power,  separated  into  actual  clusters  of  stars. 


The  Nebular  Hypothesis.  19 

The  irresolvable  nebula  retained  their  ap- 
parent continuity  under  the  highest  power 
that  Herschel  was  able  to  command. 

Lord  Rosse's  great  telescope,  with  a  penetrat- 
ing power  five  hundred  times  as  great  as  that  of 
the  naked  eye,  has  resolved  some  of  that  class 
which  Herschel  denominated  irresolvable,  but 
there  are  others  which  it  is  unable  to  resolve. 

Thus,  down  to  the  present  time,  the  constant 
enlargement  of  the  range  of  telescopic  obser- 
vation has  been  attended  with  increasing  won- 
ders, without  putting  to  rest  the  great  question 
ofrthe  existence  of  real  nebulce  in  the  heavenly 
spaces. 

But  that  which  the  telescope  could  not  do, 
that  wonderful  instrument,  the  spectroscope, 
is  supposed  to  have  done.  It  has  established 
the  fact  of  the  existence  of  luminous  nebular 
bodies  in  space. 

So  early  as  1655,  Kant  had  given  to  the 
world  his  speculations  concerning  the  Theory 
of  the  Heavens,  in  which  he  outlined  a  system 
which  other  minds  subsequently  developed 
into  completeness. 

How  far  Herschel  may  have  been  affected 
by  a  knowledge  of  the  speculations  of  Kant 


20  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

we  know  not,  but  we  know  that  Herschel's 
genius  was  not  more  inventive  than  logical. 
He  discovered  various  characteristics  of  the 
nebula,  and  he  went  from  the  actual,  which  he 
saw,  to  the  logical  hypothetical,  which  could 
not  be  seen.  There  was  in  some  of  the  nebula 
an  appearance  like  a  nucleus,  from  which,  out- 
wardly, the  mass  seemed  to  thin  out  until  it 
faded  quite  away. 

This  suggested  to  his  mind  the  idea  of  com- 
pression or  condensation  of  the  mass,  and  he 
reasoned  that  the  nebula  might  be  undergoing 
a  process  of  gradual  condensation  into  stars  \>r 
suns. 

Laplace,  who  was  contemporary  with  Her- 
schel,  seized  the  thought  and  carried  it  out  in 
wider  generalization.  He  saw,  in  the  discov- 
eries of  the  great  Hanoverian,  the  basis  of  a 
cosmical  genealogy.  Here  was  a  clew  to  the 
formation  not  only  of  suns,  but  also  of  planets 
and  satellites.  Assuming  the  existence  of 
nebula  of  such  vast  magnitude  as  to  fill,  spaces 
equal'to  or  greater  than  that  occupied  by  the 
entire  solar  system,  he  fancied  that  system  to 
have  been  evolved,  by  the  operation  of  natural 
forces,  out  of  that  nebulous  mass. 


The  Nebular  Hypothesis.  21 

Notwithstanding  the  authority  of  Laplace 
as  a  mathematician,  astronomers  were  slow  to 
receive  this  Nebular  Hypothesis.  Many  nebulce 
had  been  resolved.  Might  not  all  be  similarly 
constituted,  though  our  instruments  were  con- 
fessedly too  feeble  to  resolve  them'* 

After  all,  may  not  the  nebulce  exist  only  in 
appearance  ?  May  it  not  be  the  blended  light 
of  innumerable  stars,  situated  so  nearly  in  the 
same  line  of  vision  that  no  telescope  can  ever 
separate  them,  and  so  distant  that  their  light 
forms  but  a  haze  in  the  open  space? 

We  live  in  more  favored  times.  Great  and 
wonderful  as  are  the  results  of  telescopic  ob- 
servation, the  results  of  Spectrum  Analysis  are 
yet  more  wonderful. 

By  the  spectroscope,  light  itself  is  translated 
into  a  language  of  revelation,  and,  as  Schellen 
says,  "  we  are  indebted  to  it  for  being  able  to 
say  with  certainty  that  luminous  nebula  actu- 
ally exist  as  isolated  bodies  in  space,  and  that 
these  bodies  are  luminous  masses  of  gas." 

For  the  purposes  of  our  present  inquiry, 
therefore,  we  will  consider  this  question  set- 
tled. We  assume  the  existence  of  real  nebulce 
— immense  volumes  of  luminous  vapor  or  gas 


22  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

— filling  spaces  as  ample  as  that  occupied  by 
the  solar  system,  or  even  greater  spaces  than 
that. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  Nebular  Hypoth- 
esis a  little  more  in  detail. 

Having,  by  assumption,  the  original  cosmic- 
al  matter  existing  "  at  such  a  temperature  as 
to  be  in  the  condition  of  a  vapor  of  great  tenu- 
ity, stretching  across  limits  wider  than  the  re- 
motest planet,"  what  have  been  the  processes 
by  which  that  vapor  has  been  transformed  and 
wrought  into  our  sun  and  the  system  of  planets 
that  revolve  around  him  ? 

As  we  propose  to  examine  the  nebular 
theory  in  its  present  phases,  we  will  place  it 
before  our  readers  in  the  language  of  its  latest 
expounders  and  advocates. 

Professor  Winchell  enunciates  the  theory  as 
follows :  "  The  cooling  and  contracting  of  this 
vapor  inaugurated  a  rotation  which  was  inevi- 
tably accelerated  to  such  an  extent  that  a  pe- 
ripheral ring  was  detached  which  became  a 
planet.  The  same  process  continued,  and 
other  rings  were  detached,  which  became 
planets  in  due  succession.  Similarly  the  plan- 
etary masses  detached  rings,  which  became 


The  Nebular  Hypothesis.  23 

their  satellites.  Thus  all  the  marvelous  uni- 
formities of  the  solar  system  are  but  the  prog- 
eny of  that  primitive  impulse  which  originated 
the  grand  rotation. 

"  This  doctrine  has  earned  unquestioning 
acceptance,  simply  because  it  accords  with  all 
the  phenomena ;  and  the  Nebular  Hypothesis, 
for  similar  reasons,  is  rapidly  taking  its  place 
among  established  doctrines.  Many  late  dis- 
coveries afford  unexpected  confirmations  ;  and 
there  are  few  physicists  at  the  present  time 
who  continue  to  withhold  their  assent.  Oc- 
casionally we  hear  a  dissenting  voice,  but  it 
proceeds  almost  always  from  persons  who,  what- 
ever may  be  their  eminence  in  theology  or  let- 
ters, have  little  authority  in  matters  of  scien- 
tific opinion. 

"  Many  interesting  deductions  follow  from 
the  nebular  origin  of  the  solar  system.  The 
older  planets  are  those  remote  from  the  sun, 
and  the  youngest  planet  is  Mercury;  while  the 
sun  is  only  the  residual  portion  of  the  cosmical 
mass,  still  maintaining  an  inconceivably  high 
temperature,  simply  because  so  vast  a  body  of 
matter  has  not  yet  had  time  to  cool  off.  The 
planetary  bodies,  similarly,  must  have  attained 


24  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

to  stages  of  refrigeration  determined  by  the 
joint  influence  of  age  and  mass. 

"  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  older 
planets  are  composed  of  a  smaller  proportion 
of  the  denser  elements,  since  they  are  formed 
from  peripheral  portions  of  the  original  fire- 
mist,  while  it  is  likely  that  the  denser  portions 
gathered  about  the  center,  and  entered  to  a 
larger  extent  into  the  constitution  of  later  rings. 
The  lower  specific  gravity  of  the  older  plan- 
ets may  be  partly  attributed  to  this  cause. 
While  Mercury,  Venus,  and  Mars  do  not  vary 
materially  from  the  density  of  the  Earth, 
Jupiter,  Uranus,  and  Neptune  possess  only  one 
fourth  of  the  Earth's  density  and  Saturn  but 
one  eighth.  This  circumstance  must  have  much 
to  do  with  determining  the  relative  proportions 
of  solid  and  liquid  materials  upon  the  several 
planets  at  given  temperatures,  and  is  thus  con- 
nected with  their  adaptability  to  serve  as 
abodes  of  organic  life." — Geology  of  the  Stars. 

David  A.  Wells,  an  author  of  excellent 
standing  among  educators,  and  editor  of  the 
"  Annual  of  Scientific  Discovery,"  presents  the 
theory  as  follows: — 

"  Modern  science  presents  us  with  only  one 


The  Nebular  Hypothesis.  2$ 

hypothesis  which,  in  a  consistent  and  satis- 
factory manner,  attempts  to  reveal  to  us  the 
condition  of  matter,  in  what  may  be  called  the 
beginning.  The  outline  of  this  theory,  and 
the  evidence  upon  which  it  is  based,  may  be 
briefly  stated  as  follows  : — 

"  Our  solar  system,  of  which  the  earth  is  a 
member,  viewed  superficially,  presents  to  us  the 
idea  of  a  vast  luminous  body — the  sun — oc- 
cupying a  central  position,  with  a  number  of 
smaller,  though  various-sized,  bodies  revolv- 
ing at  different  distances  around  it,  some  of 
which,  in  turn,  have  smaller  planets  or  satellites 
revolving  about  them. 

"A  closer  examination,  however,  makes  us 
acquainted  with  some  very  singular  peculiar- 
ities in  the  structure  of  this  so-called  "  solar 
system."  Thus,  in  the  first  place,  it  is  a  very 
singular  fact  that  the  orbits  of  the  planets  are 
all  nearly  circular,  and  that  their  planes  are 
nearly  coincident  with  (or  in  the  same  line 
with)  the  plane  of  the  sun's  equator. 

"  Next,  it  is  not  less  remarkable  that  the 
motions  of  the  planets  around  the  sun,  and  the 
satellites  around  the  planets,  and,  finally,  that 
the  motions  of  all — sun,  planets,  and  satellites 


26  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

•. — around  their  axes,  should  be  only  in  one  direc- 
tion, namely,  from  west  to  east ;  that  the  periods 
of  revolution  grow  shorter  in  the  planets  and 
satellites  as  their  distances  from  their  primary 
grow  less ;  that  the  sun  rotates  on  its  axis  in  a 
shorter  period  than  that  employed  in  the  revo- 
lution of  any  planet,  and  that  every  planet,  ac- 
companied by  satellites,  rotates  on  its  axis  in  a 
less  time  than  the  period  of  revolution  of  any 
satellite. 

"These  peculiarities  suggested  to  Laplace, 
the  eminent  French  astronomer  and  mathemati- 
cian, the  idea  that  all  the  matter  of  the  solar 
system  was  once  a  connected  mass,  endowed 
with  a  uniform  motion  in  one  direction. 

"  He  further  showed,  that  while  this  hypoth- 
esis and  its  deductions  explained  fully  the 
peculiarities  noticed,  they  were  not  accounted 
for  by  any  other  supposition  ;  and,  also,  that  had 
the  existing  arrangement  of  the  solar  system 
been  left  to  accident,  the  chances  against  the 
occurrence  of  the  present  organization  would 
have  been  as  four  millions  of  millions  to  one. 

"  Coincident  with  these  investigations  was 
the  discovery  by  astronomers  of  the  existence 
in  space,  far  removed  from  our  system,  of  an  im- 


The  Nebular  Hypothesis.  27 

mense  number  of  objects  which,  from  their 
foggy,  cloudy  appearance  have  been  called 
nebula :  some  of  vast  extent  and  irregular 
outline,  as  that  in  the  sword  of  Orion,  which  is 
visible  to  the  naked  eye  ;  others  of  shape  more 
defined  and  regular;  and  others,  again,  in 
which  small,  bright  nuclei,  apparently  con- 
densed points,  appear  here  and  there  over  the 
surface.  Ascending  higher,  as  it  were,  in  the 
scale  of  progress,  we  have  next  clusters  of 
nuclei  with  nebulous  matter  around  them ;  and 
then  what  are  called  '  nebulous  stars,'  or 
luminous  spherical  objects — bright  in  the  cen- 
ter and  dull  toward  the  extremities — existing, 
however,  in  every  stage  of  concentration,  from 
stars  with  ill-defined  centers  to  stars  invested 
with  only  a  slight  burr  or  haziness. 

"  Upon  these  facts,  mainly,  has  been  built  up 
the  so-called  Nebular  Hypothesis  which  sup- 
poses that  the  various  appearances  we  have 
described  represent  the  various  conditions 
which  suns,  systems,  and  worlds  pass  through 
in  their  progress  of  formation  ;  the  cloudy  neb- 
ula representing  matter  in  its  original  chaotic 
condition ;  the  defined  nebula,  the  first  stage 
of  condensation ;  and  nucleeatd  nebula,  a.^d 


28  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

the  succession  of  nucleated  stars,  the  more 
advanced  and  final  stages ;  just  as  a  child,  a 
boy,  a  youth,  a  middle-aged  and  an  old  man, 
indicate  the  successive  periods  in  the  life  of  a 
human  being.  But  whatever  may  be  the 
physical  condition  of  the  nebula,  the  main 
features  of  'the  theory  of  Laplace  curiously 
accord  with  the  antecedent  condition  of  our 
system  as  deduced  from  its  present  peculiari- 
ties ;  and  it  is  accordingly  inferred  that,  in  the 
'  beginning/  our  solar  system  was  an  immense 
sphere  of  nebulous  matter,  filling  all  the  space 
now  occupied  by  the  system,  and  extending 
even  to  apoint  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  orbit 
of  Neptune,  a  planet  whose  average  distance 
from  the  sun  is  about  three  billions  of  miles. 

"  Assuming  the  existence  of  such  a  nebula  in 
the  first  instance,  the  general  attractive  force 
resident  in  all  matter  would  gradually  cause 
its  particles  to  approach  each  other,  and  thus, 
from  the  outset,  the  nebulous  sphere  must 
have  commenced  condensing  and  contracting. 
'  It  is,  moreover,  a  well-known  law  of  physics, 
that  when  fluid  matter  (gaseous  or  liquid) 
collects  toward  or  meets  in  a  center,  it  estab- 
lishes rotary  motion.  Every-day  illustrations 


The  Nebular  Hypothesis.  29 

of  this  law  may  be  seen  in  the  whirlpool  or 
whirlwind,  or,  to  use  a  more  humble  illustration, 
in  water  sinking  through  the  aperture  of  a 
funnel.  Thus  rotation  on  an  axis  would  com- 
mence, at  first  slow,  but  become  quicker  and 
quicker  as  the  condensation  increased.'  With 
the  establishment  of  rotary  motion,  a  tendency 
in  the  mass  to  throw  off  its  outer  portions 
would  be  generated  in  consequence  of  the 
centrifugal  force  overpowering  the  central  at- 
traction ;  and  it  is  accordingly  supposed  that 
masses  of  matter  were,  in  fact,  from  time  to 
time,  torn  away  from  the  nebulous  sphere, 
which  detached  portions  afterward  continued 
their  courses  separate  from  the  main  mass,  but 
preserving  a  similar  direction  in  their  motion. 
Such  detached  masses,  abandoned  successively 
at  different  stages  of  the  condensation,  formed 
themselves  into  single  planets,  or,  like  the  great 
original  sphere,  into  planets  with  satellites  and 
rings,  until,  finally,  the  principal  mass  con- 
densed itself  into  the  sun,  which  still  occupies 
its  original  position  as  the  center  of  the  system, 
and  as  the  largest  body. 

"  Simultaneously  with  the  commencement  of 
condensation  in  the  nebulous  matter,  the  force 


30  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

heat  must  have  manifested  itself,  since  it  is  a 
general  law  of  physics  that  the  condensation 
or  compression  of  all  matter,  under  all  circum- 
stances, evolves  heat ;  and  as  condensation  and 
refrigeration  further  progressed,  by  the  radia- 
tion of  heat  into  space,  other  forces,  as  chemic- 
al affinity,  cohesion,  etc.,  must  have  exerted 
an  influence,  until  at  last  the  constituent  mate- 
rials of  our  earth  and  the  other  planetary 
bodies  passed  from  a  gaseous  to  a  fluid  or 
solid  condition,  and  assumed  their  present 
forms  and  properties." 

Again,  WINCHELL  says :  "  We  know  enough 
of  the  phases  of  matter,  in  the  different  prov- 
inces of  space,  to  feel  certain  that  they  represent 
progressive  stages  in  the  natural  evolution  of 
matter  as  such.  Whether  seen  in  nebula,  star, 
sun,  planet,  or  satellite,  it  is  a  phase  in  a  com- 
mon history,  the  earliest  periods  of  which  are 
as  truly  a  part  of  the  history  of  our  world,  as 
the  achievements  of  Alfred  the  Great  are  a 
part  of  the  history  of  communities  of  American 
birth." 

He  also  furnishes  us  a  "  tentative  exhibit  of 
the  successive  stages  of  world  matter,"  and 
says  that  "  there  is  little  doubt  that  its  general 


The  Nebular  Hypothesis.  31 

tenor  expresses  a  fact  in  the  aspects  of  the 
universe." 

He  divides  the  entire  history  into  chapters, 
which  he  denominates  PHASES,  and  these 
phases  into  STAGES. 

The  phases  are  the  NEBULAR  PHASE,  the 
STELLAR  PHASE,  and  the  PLANETARY  PHASE. 

The  NEBULAR  PHASE  has  four  successive 
stages : — 

i.  The  stage  of  gaseity ;  2.  The  stage  of  nor- 
mal nebulosity ;  3.  The  stage  of  continuous  fire- 
mist  ;  4.  The  stage  of  discontinuous  fire-mist. 

The  first  of  these  stages  is  supposed  to  be 
exemplified  by  "the  faint  central  portions  of 
the  annular  nebula  ;  "  the  second,  by  "  some  of 
the  irresolvable  nebula  /"  the  third,  by  "some 
of  the  irresolvable  nebula"  and  some  stars; 
and  the  fourth,  by  "  certain  resolvable  nebula" 
The  STELLAR  PHASE  has  nine  successive 
stages  :— 

i.  The  primary  nuclear  stage;  2.  The 
secondary  nuclear  stage  ;  3.  The  Sirian  stage  ; 
4.  The  Arcturian  stage ;  5.  The  solar  stage  ; 
6.  The  variable  stage  ;  7.  The  liquid  stage  ; 
8.  The  incrustive  stage ;  9.  The  eruptive 
stage. 


32  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

The  first  of  these  stages  is  supposed  to  be 
exemplified  by  "  the  planetary  mbulce  "  and  the 
"  nebular  stars  ;  "  the  second,  by  "  certain  star 
clusters  and  most  resolvable  nebula;"  the 
third,  by  white  stars ;  the  fourth,  by  yellow 
stars ;  the  fifth,  by  our  sun ;  the  sixth,  by 
variable  stars ;  the  seventh,  by  "  some  star 
clusters  and  resolvable  nebula  ;  "  the  eighth,  by 
red  stars  ;  and  the  ninth,  by  temporary  stars. 

The  PLANETARY  PHASE  has  five  successive 
stages  :— 

I.  The  Saturnian  stage;  2.  The  Jovian 
stage  ;  3.  The  terrestrial  stage  ;  4.  The  Martial 
stage  ;  5.  The  lunar  stage. 

These  successive  stages  are  supposed  to  be 
exemplified  by  the  present  condition  of  Saturn, , 
Jupiter,  Earth,  Mars,  and  the  Moon.  The 
first  exhibits  the  ring  condition ;  the  second 
the  formation  of  an  "  atmosphere  around 
the  incrusted  nucleus,"  and  the  production  of 
the  lower  forms  of  life ;  the  third  witnesses 
the  "  culmination  of  the  organic  phase  ;  "  the 
fourth  witnesses  the  "  decline  of  the  organic 
phase,"  and  the  fifth  witnesses  the  "  extinction 
of  organization  "  and  "  final  refrigeration." 

Laplace,  a  prince  among  geometricians,  de- 


The  Nebular  Hypothesis.  33 

clares  that  he  put  forth  his  nebular  hypothesis 
with  diffidence.  The  disciples  of  Laplace, 
while  carrying  the  theory  beyond  the  thought 
of  the  great  master,  enunciate  it  at  once  with 
almost  dogmatic  positiveness  and  with  the 
richest  ornamentation  of  rhetoric. 

Nothing  can  exceed  the  enthusiasm  of  Win- 
chell,  unless  it  be  the  inconceivably  high  tem- 
perature of  the  original  world  stuff.  Nothing 
can  compare  with  the  grandeur  of  his  periods, 
unless  it  be  the  original  grand  rotation  itself. 

We  shall  be  pardoned,  we  trust,  if  we  come 
to  the  examination  and  discussion  of  this  sub- 
ject without  enthusiasm.  Should  our  analysis 
even  seem  destitute  of  warmth ;  should  we 
betray  any  lack  of  appreciation  of  red-hot 
phrases,  we  still  trust  that  cool  heads  will 
consent  to  accompany  us  while  we  take  this 
nebular  theory  in  pieces  and  weigh  it  in  the 
scales  of  real  science.  Huge  as  it  is,  it  will, 
we  think,  submit  to  analysis  and  test. 


34  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 


CHAPTER  III. 

CAUSE  OF  ROTARY  MOTION. 

Condensation  by  gravity — Contraction  by  cooling — Illustra- 
tration  of  the  process — The  whirlwind  and  whirlpool — Views 
of  Helmholtz — Sterry  Hunt — Tyndall — Herbert  Spencer. 

IT  must  have  been  noticed  that  in  the  two 
outlines  of  the  nebular  theory  which  we 
have  quoted  there  was  one  point  of  disagree- 
ment, and  it  was  an  essential  point.  What 
was  the  cause  of  the  original  rotation  of  the 
cosmical  mass  ?  One  class  of  advocates  of  the 
theory  answer,  "  The  cooling,  and  consequent 
contraction,  of  the  mass.1'  Another  class  an- 
swer, "  The  general  attractive  force  resident  in 
all  matter" 

It  may  not,  at  first  sight,  occur  to  the  reader 
that  these  two  causes  could  not  co-exist.  Why 
not? 

If  such  a  nebular  sphere  did  once  exist,  must 
there  not  have  been  a  resident  attractive  force  ? 
Undoubtedly. 


Cause  of  Rotary  Motion.  35 

But  such  an  exertion  of  this  force  as  would 
result  in  trie  condensation  of  the  mass,  would 
also  have  resulted  in  the  evolution  of  heat. 
If,  then,  the  cosmical  mass  was  condensed  and 
contracted  by  the  force  of  gravity,  it  could  not 
have  been  contracted  by  the  process  of  cooling 
off. 

HELMHOLTZ  supposes  the  "  heat  of  the  sun 
to  be  maintained  by  the  slow  condensation  of 
its  mass ;  a  diminution  by  T^ -$  of  its  present 
diameter  being  sufficient  to  maintain  the  pres- 
ent supply  of  heat  for  twenty-one  thousand 
years." 

Professor  WlNCHELL,  however,  is  at  issue  with 
this  theory  of  condensation,  and  consequent 
evolution,  of  heat.  He  remarks  that,  "  We  can- 
not safely  assert  that  every  or  any  nebulous  body 
increases  in  temperature  during  any  period  of 
its  history.  It  seems  more  probable  that  a 
continuous  reduction  of  temperature  is  expe- 
rienced, and  that  the  temperature  inherent  in 
the  sun  at  the  present  time  is  rather  the  resid- 
uum of  the  primordial  heat  than  the  effect  of 
the  condensation  of  his  mass.' 

To  our  present  inquiry  it  is  a  matter  of  in- 
difference which  of  these  two  theories  is  ac- 


36  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

cepted.  The  cosmical  mass  may  be  conceived 
of  as  being  condensed  by  the  operation  of  the 
resident  attractive  force,  and  heated  thereby, 
or  it  may  be  conceived  of  as  at  an  inconceiv- 
ably high  temperature  in  the  beginning,  and 
as  gradually  dropping  its  temperature  by  the 
radiation  of  its  heat  and  thus  contracting  its 
volume,  in  either  case,  are  we  furnished  with 
an  account  of  the  origin  of  rotary  motion  ? 

Rotary  motion  is  the  one  universal  fact  in 
the  solar  system.  Rotary  motion,  in  the  solar 
system,  suggested  the  hypothesis  of  cosmical 
evolution.  Rotary  motion  is  a  prime  factor 
in  the  theory.  "  All  the  marvelous  uniform- 
ities of  the  solar  system  are  but  the  progeny 
of  that  primitive  impulse  which  originated  the 
grand  rotation." 

To  account  for  the  beginning  of  rotary  mo- 
tion is,  therefore,  the  first  duty  of  the  advocate 
of  the  nebular  theory. 

We  have  before  us  two  methods  of  doing 
this.  One  makes  the  rotary  motion  the  effect 
of  the  cooling,  and  consequent  contraction, 
of  the  mass.  The  other  makes  the  rotary 
motion  the  effect  of  the  condensation  of  the 
mass  by  the  force  of  gravity.  If  either  of 


Cause  of  Rotary  Motion.  37 

these  alleged  causes  existed,  was  it  adequate 
to  the  alleged  effect  ?  If  both  co-existed  and 
co-operated,  were  they  both,  when  combined, 
adequate  to  the  task? 

Let  us 'first  examine  the  theory  of  gravitative 
force. 

The  resident  attractive  force  which  is  in  all 
matter  is  known  to  produce  the  spherical  form. 

If,  therefore,  we  conceive  of  matter  existing 
in  the  nebulous  condition,  and  in  a  mass  of  ir- 
regular shape,  or  in  detached,  but  contiguous, 
masses,  we  shall  readily  conclude  that  this 
mass,  or  these  masses,  will,  by  the  operation 
of  this  force,  become  one  spherical-  mass.  We 
can  also  readily  conceive  of  a  spherical  mass  of 
cosmical  matter,  the  diameter  of  which  shall 
exceed  that  of  the  orbit  of  the  most  distant 
planet. 

It  may  not  be  amiss,  at  this  point,  to  look 
at  the  magnitude  of  such  a  sphere,  and  con- 
sider what  the  condition  of  the  matter  of  our 
solar  system  must  have  been  if  thus  expanded. 

In  round  numbers,  the  mean  diameter  of 
the  orbit  of  Neptune  is  about  six  thousand 
millions  of  miles. 

The   volume   of  such   a   sphere    would   be 

311990 


38  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

1 1 5,041 ,600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  cubic 
miles,  or  more  than  three  hundred  and  forty 
billions'  times  the  present  volume  of  the  sun, 
which  is  five  hundred  times  the  volume  of  all 
the  planets  combined. 

Professor  HELMHOLTZ— justly  distinguished 
among  physicists — says :  "  If  we  calculate  the 
density  of  the  mass  of  our  planetary  system, 
according  to  the  above  assumption,  for  the 
time  when  it  was  a  nebulous  sphere,  which 
reached  to  the  path  of  the  outmost  planet,  we 
should  find  that  it  would  require  several  cubic 
miles  of  such  matter  to  weigh  a  single  grain." 

This,  then,  is  the  condition  of  the  cosmical 
matter,  when,  according  to  the  theory  which 
we  are  now  examining,  the  general  attractive 
force,  which  is  resident  in  it,  commences  the 
work  of  inaugurating  a  rotation  of  the  mass 
on  an  axis.  Can  it  do  it  ? 

The  paramount  force,  or,  rather,  the  result- 
ant force,  exerted  by  all  the  atoms  of  the  mass 
upon  any  single  atom,  will  be  in  what  direc- 
tion ?  Toward  the  center. 

It  cannot  deviate  from  the  center  by  so  much 
as  a  hair's  breadth.  The  force  of  gravity  on  all 
parts  of  the  mass  must  be  exactly  centripetal. 


Cause  of  Rotary  Motion.  39 

But  can  this  centripetal  tendency  of  the 
particles  produce  rotary  motion  ? 

There  is  nothing  in  the  nature  of  the  force 
to  lead  to  such  a  conclusion.  On  the  contrary, 
all  fluid  matter  possesses  a  buoyant  power  ex- 
actly proportioned  to  its  density.  If  all  the  mat\ 
ter  be  of  uniform  density  it  will  be  uniformly  j 
buoyant,  and,  though  acted  on  by  gravity,  it 
will  remain  in  a  state  of  rest.  But  if  we  supr 
pose  the  atoms  of  different  elements  having 
different  specific  gravity  to  seek  the  center  and 
to  gain  it  at  the  expense  of  the  lighter  ele- 
ments, then  there  must  arise  only  a  process 
analogous  to  that  of  sedimentary  deposition, 
the  moter  effect  of  which  would  be  insensible. 

We  might  conceive  of  a  central  nucleus  of 
liquid  or  solid  matter  thus  being  formed ;  but 
inasmuch  as  the  deposit  would  be  uniform  on 
all  sides  and  exactly  central  to  the  mass,  (the 
lines  of  descent  being  exactly  centripetal,)  we 
cannot  perceive  how  this  could  inaugurate 
rotary  motion. 

If  the  matter  be  not  at  a  temperature  too 
high  to  admit  of  increase  by  this  process  of 
condensation,  then,  evidently,  heat  must  result. 
But  what  force,  besides  heat,  is  known  that  is 


40  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

capable  of  so  attenuating  the  matter  which  is 
known  to  exist  in  the  solar  system  as  to  fill  the 
space  required  by  the  nebular  theory  ?  Nay, 
is  it  known  that  heat  itself  is  capable  of  doing 
it?  But,  if  the  matter  be  thus  attenuated  by 
heat,  could  its  condensation  take  place  at  all 
except  by  cooling?  But,  admitting  that  it 
could,  have  we  found  a  cause  for  rotary  motion  ? 
Not  yet. 

There  is  a  hypothetical  deposition  of  the 
denser  elements.  It  goes  on  equally  from  all 
sides,  and  as  the  denser  elements  go  down,  the 
lighter  elements  are  lifted  toward  the  surface. 
This  process,  we  should  suppose,  would  result 
in  the  gradual  arrangement  of  the  cosmical  mat- 
ter in  concentric  strata,  in  regular  order  from 
the  most  dense  at  the  center  to  the  least  dense 
at  the  surface.  Two  forces,  allowing  that  the 
elements  were  freely  intermixed  in  the  begin- 
ning, might  be  supposed  to  counteract  this 
operation  of  the  resident  force  of  gravity. 

The  force  of  cohesion,  though  feeble  in  its 
action  upon  aeriform  matter,  still  performs  im- 
portant offices  in  the  present  state  of  matter. 
By  it  we  suppose  the  water  of  the  deep  seas 
to  keep  up  a  supply  of  air  sufficient  to  sustain 


Cause  of  Rotary  Motion.  41 

the  life  that  exists  in  the  waters ;  and  by  it 
the  air  is  enabled  to  hold  aqueous  vapors  in 
suspension.  By  it  the  atmosphere  itself  may 
be  said  to  keep  the  due  proportions  of  its  gas- 
eous constituents  always  present,  for  atmos- 
pheric air  is  not  a  chemical  compound,  but  a 
mixture.  So,  also,  we  may  conceive  of  this 
cohesive  attraction  as  interfering,  in  some 
degree,  with  the  process  of  stratification  in  the 
aeriform  cosmical  mass.  The  chemical  force — 
affinity — would  at  certain  temperatures  entire- 
ly arrest  the  supposed  process  of  stratification  ; 
but  it  would  only  arrest  it  to  substitute  one  of 
another  kind  in  its  place,  namely,  a  stratifica- 
tion of  compound  substances. 

There  seem  to  be  two  opposite  conditions  of 
the  original  matter  assumed  by  the  two  classes 
of  nebular  theorists.  One  represents  the  mat- 
ter as  inconceivably  hot.  The  other  represents 
the  matter  as  heated  by  the  operation  of  the 
attractive  force. 

Assume  the  truth  of  the  latter  representa- 
tion ;  then,  so  soon  as  the  matter  reaches  a 
temperature  at  which  affinity  can  act,  there 
must  be  general  chemical  combination.  As- 
sume the  truth  of  the  former  representation  ; 


42  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

then,  so  soon  as  the  temperature  gets  down 
low  enough,  there  must  be  general  chemical 
combination.  In  either  case  there  would  re- 
sult condensation  by  combination. 

But  such  condensation  could  only  be  of  the 
particles  in  contact ;  and  we  may  conceive  of 
the  deposition  of  compounds  almost  infinites- 
imally  minute,  through  substances  in  which 
affinity  was  not  yet  brought  into  play. 

And  still  in  none  of  the  operations,  which 
we  have  conceived  of  as  possible,  is  there  any 
thing,  so  far  as  we  can  see,  to  produce  a  rotary 
motion  of  the  mass.  But  if  we  assume  that 
the  original  matter  existed  at  an  incon- 
ceivably high  temperature,  then  we  must  con- 
sider the  elements  as  free. 

Dr.  HUNT  remarks  :  "  Of  the  chemical  rela- 
tions of  such  intensely  heated  matter,  modern 
chemistry  has  made  known  to  us  some  curious 
facts,  which  help  to  throw  light  on  the  con- 
stitution and  luminosity  of  the  sun.  Heat, 
under  ordinary  conditions,  is  favorable  to 
chemical  combination,  but  a  higher  tempera- 
ture reverses  all  affinities.  Thus  the  so-called 
noble  metals,  gold,  silver,  mercury,  etc.,  unite 
with  oxygen  and  other  metals  ;  but  these  com- 


Cause  of  Rotary  Motion.  43 

pounds  are  decomposed  by  heat,  and  the  pure 
metals  are  regenerated. 

"  A  similar  reaction  was  many  years  since 
shown  by  Mr.  Grove  with  regard  to  water, 
whose  elements — oxygen  and  hydrogen — when 
mingled  and  kindled  by  a  flame,  or  by  the 
electric  spark,  unite  to  form  water,  which  how- 
ever, at  a  much  higher  temperature,  is  again 
resolved  into  its  component  gases.  The  re- 
cent researches  of  Henry  Sainte  Claire  Deville 
and  others  go  far  to  show  that  this  breaking 
up  of  compounds,  or  dissociation  of  elements 
by  intense  heat,  is  a  principle  of  universal  ap- 
plication." Our  cosmical  matter,  then,  while 
existing  at  an  inconceivably  high  temperature, 
is  free  from  the  action  of  chemical  affinity. 

There  is  but  a  single  force  operating  to  pro- 
duce any  great  change  in  its  structure,  and  that 
single  force  is  gravity.  And  we  know  that,  to 
this  force,  all  matter,  in  all  conditions,  is  subject. 

There  is  no  force  contemplated  as  acting  on 
the  cosmical  mass  from  beyond  itself  to  give  it 
a  rotary  motion.  The  conditions  of  the  nebu- 
lar hypothesis  forbid  this.  This  cosmical  his- 
tory is  a  history  of  evolutions.  Causation  is 
all  within. 


44  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

The  rotary  motion  had  its  origin  in  some 
primitive  impulse,  evolved  out  of  the  world 
matter  itself,  or  resident  in  it.  Tyndall  refers 
all  the  motions  of  the  universe  to  the  gravita- 
tive  attraction,  saying,  "The  potential  en- 
ergy of  gravitation  was  the  original  form  of  all 
the  energy  in  the  universe."  If  TYNDALL 
does  not  know  who  does  ?  Certainly  no  affir- 
mation could  be  more  positive.  HELMHOLTZ 
also  refers  the  condensation  of  the  original 
matter  to  attraction  ;  but  he  does  not  refer  the 
beginning  of  rotary  motion  to  the  same  force. 
He  says  we  must  assume  its  existence.  These 
are  his  words :  "  The  general  attractive  force 
of  all  matter  must,  however,  impel  these  mass- 
es to  approach  each  other,  and  to  condense, 
so  that  the  nebulous  sphere  becomes  incessantly 
smaller,  by  which,  according  to  mechanical 
laws,  a  motion  of  rotation  originally  slow,  and 
the  existence  of  which  must  be  assumed,  would 
gradually  become  quicker  and  quicker." 

We  are  persuaded  that  HELMHOLTZ  is  right 
— the  existence  of  an  original  rotation  must  be 
assumed,  and  if  assumed,  then  we  confess  that 
it  cannot  be  accounted  for. 

But  it  is  alleged  that,  "  It  is  a  well-known 


Cause  of  Rotary  Motion.  45 

fact  that  when  fluid  matter  (gaseous  or  liquid) 
collects  toward  or  meets  in  a  center,  it  estab- 
lishes rotary  motion,"  and  the  whirlwind  and 
whirlpool  are  cited  as  illustrations  of  this  law. 
But  we  see  no  analogy — not  the  least — between 
the  conditions  which  produce  either  of  these 
phenomena,  and  the  supposed  conditions  of  the 
cosmical  mass,  whose  rotation  is  to  be  account- 
ed for. 

The  whirlpool  exhibits  the  following  inci- 
dents :  i .  An  escape  of  water  through  an  orifice. 
2.  A  flow  of  the  water  in  the  mass  toward  the 
orifice  seeking  an  equilibrium.  3.  The  down- 
ward current  of  escape,  and  the  reaction  of  the 
centripetal  currents  after  impact,  give  rise  to  a 
rotary  motion,  which  continues  only  so  long  as 
the  equilibrium  is  unrestored. 

But  in  the  nebular  mass  we  have  found  a 
perfect  equilibrium  already  existing.  The 
whole  mass  is  supposed  to  be  aeriform  and 
spherical.  All  is  balanced  about  the  center  of 
gravity. 

And  the  center  of  gravity  is  not  a  vacuum 
into  which  the  cosmical  matter  rushes,  meeting, 
reacting,  and  moving  off  through  some  outlet 
opened  for  it.  If  we  could  conceive  of  an 


46  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

axial  outlet,  and  an  equatorial  centripetal  flow, 
we  might  thus  imagine  the  existence  of  a  con- 
dition of  things  analogous  to  those  in  the 
whirlpool. 

But  we  cannot  conceive  of  such  an  outlet, 
for  the  attractions  are  all  so  adjusted  that  every 
part  of  the  sphere  equally  distant  from,  is 
equally  drawn  toward  the  center.  There  is  no 
axis,  for  there  is  no  rotation. 

In  the  whirlpool  there  is  an  escape  of  the 
water  downward,  producing  a  vortex.  In  the 
whirlwind  there  is  an  escape  of  the  air  up- 
ward, producing  a  vortex.  Did  the  force  of 
gravity  ever  yet  produce  a  vortex  by  drawing 
matter  into  its  own  center  ? 

In  the  whirlpool  and  whirlwind,  were  there 
no  such  escape  of  the  central  matter,  there 
could  be  no  centripetal  flow.  Whenever  the 
oiifice  is  stopped  the  centripetal  flow  ceases 
and  the  whirlpool  ends. 

It  is  by  the  escaping  current  that  the  cen- 
tripetal currents  are  modified  as  they  approach 
the  central  point,  so  that  they  flow  not  to  it, 
but  around  it. 

Conceive  now,  not  of  a  sudden  rush  of  mat- 
ter to  a  central  void  ;  not  of  the  violent  impact 


Cause  of  Rotary  Motion.  47 

of  elements  seeking  an  avenue  of  escape,  and 
moving  forward  after  impact  to  the  place  of 
escape  by  a  modified  motion  ;  but  of  a  mass  of 
matter  in  equilibrium,  from  every  point  of 
which  there  is  a  gravitation  toward  the  center. 
That  matter  which  is  at  the  center  is  at  rest. 
That  which  is  near  the  center  is  at  rest.  All 
is  at  rest. 

But  the  specific  gravity  of  the  elements 
being  different,  the  elements  also  being  dis- 
sociated, and  therefore  free  to  obey  the  gravi- 
tative  force,  we  may  conceive  of  them  as  part- 
ing company,  and  the  denser  elements  descend- 
ing slowly  toward  the  center.  But  if  such  a 
movement  be  imagined,  it  must  be  supposed 
to  begin  simultaneously  every-where  and  to 
go  on  equally  on  all  sides.  Then  the  elements 
of  highest  specific  gravity  which  are  nearest 
the  center  will  reach  it  first  and  rest. 

Two  motions  there  would  be,  the  centripetal 
motion  of  the  denser  atoms,  and  the  radial 
motion  of  the  lighter  atoms. 

The  gravitation  of  all  toward  the  center 
simply  increases  the  density  of  the  central  mat- 
ter, and  gives  it  greater  buoyant  power  so  long 
as  it  remains  fluid. 


48  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

But  we  do  not  see  any  thing  in  the  supposed 
conditions  to  produce  rotary  motion  in  the  mass. 
We  are  obliged,  then,  to  declare  the  problem 
of  rotary  motion  unsolved  by  that  form  of  the 
nebular  theory  which  refers  it  to  the  general 
attractive  force. 

But  what  would  be  the  effect  of  that  evolu- 
tion of  heat  which  must  result  from  condensa- 
tion ?  Perhaps  it  would  cause  an  expansion 
of  the  volume.  But  what  then  ?  The  direc- 
tion of  the  condensing  force  is  centripetal. 
The  expansion  must  be  radial.  But  this  could 
not  originate  rotary  motion.  We  know  of  no 
law  or  principle  of  matter  that  explains  the 
origin  of  rotary  motion. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  consideration  of  the 
theory  enunciated  by  WlNCHELL,  which  al- 
leges that  the  rotary  motion  was  caused  by 
the  cooling,  and  consequent  contracting,  of  the 
original  cosmical  sphere. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  advocates  of 
this  theory  have  not  entered  more  largely  into 
the  discussion  of  it.  No  one  condescends  to 
give  us  the  rationale  of  it.  How  does  the 
process  of  cooling  and  contracting  the  mass 
impart  to  it  rotary  motion  ? 


Cause  of  Rotary  Motion.  49 

The  cosmical  mass  is,  according  to  the 
theory,  at  an  inconceivably  high  temperature. 
The  phenomenon  of  combustion,  being  a  chem- 
ical one,  is  impossible,  and  the  heat  of  the 
mass  is  to  be  conceived  of  as  inherent,  and  we 
do  not  look  for  its  cause  any  more  than  we 
look  for  the  cause  of  the  cosmical  matter  it- 
self. Its  presence  in  the  matter  is  assumed. 
But,  as  the  resident  attractive  force  would  act 
at  the  very  beginning  of  its  existence,  (which 
must  have  been  at  the  beginning  of  the  exist- 
ence of  the  matter  itself,)  so  also  the  heat, 
which  was  likewise  in  the  matter  from  the  be- 
ginning, was  an  active  force,  and  its  law  was, 
as  it  is  now,  radiation. 

Modern  science  teaches  that  heat  is  a  form 
of  motion.  There  is  molecular  motion,  which 
is  heat  in  the  mass.  There  is  an  interatomic 
and  inter-stellar  ether,  whose  undulatory  mo- 
tions are  radiant  heat. 

We  are,  then,  to  conceive  of  the  cosmical 
matter  in  a  state  of  high  heat,  that  is,  pervaded 
throughout  with  the  highest  thermal  activity, 
which  is  imparted  to  the  enveloping  ether, 
and  thus  radiated  into  space,  its  radiations 

proceeding  in  right  lines,  the  same  as  light. 
4 


50  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

The  radiation  is  from  the  entire  surface. 
The  thermal  activity  is  equal  over  the  entire 
surface.  The  ethereal  envelope  is  homoge- 
neous every-where,  and  therefore  the  cooling 
must  go  on  equally  over  every  part  of  the  sur- 
face. Moreover,  if  by  convection  or  otherwise 
the  interior  heat  be  so  brought  to  the  surface 
as  to  maintain  nearly  the  same  temperature 
throughout  the  mass,  still  the  cooling  will 
take  place  equally  in  all  directions  from  the 
center. 

The  cooling  of  the  surface  would  contract 
the  surface,  and  the  cooling  of  the  mass  would 
contract  the  mass.  But  the  contraction  would 
be  in  the  direction  of  the  center.  It  would  be 
equivalent  to  a  subsidence  of  the  surface. 
Could  this  insensible  universal  depression  of 
the  surface  produce  a  rotary  motion  of  the 
mass?  We  see  not  how  it  could. 

But  it  is  gravely  urged  that  we  have  an  il- 
lustration and  proof  of  this  theory,  also,  in  the 
whirlwind  and  whirlpool ;  and  we  are  obliged 
to  re-examine  those  phenomena,  which,  if  not 
analogous  to  the  supposed  action  of  the  cos- 
mical  matter  under  the  influence  of  gravity, 
are,  we  think,  no  more  analogous  to  the  behav- 


Cause  of  Rotary  Motion.  51 

ior  of  the  cosmical  matter  under  the  conditions 
we  are  now  considering. 

The  whirlpool,  on  a  small  scale,  is  a  famil- 
iar object.  We  observe  the  displacement  of 
a  central  body  of  water,  the  rush  of  the  exter- 
nal water  to  the  space  thus  made  vacant,  and 
the  impact  of  the  currents  thus  formed. 

The  momentum  of  the  innumerable  cen- 
tripetal currents  at  the  moment  of  impact 
must  entirely  neutralize  those  currents,  or 
cause  a  rebound  in  the  lines  in  which  they  ap- 
proached the  center,  or  they  must  change  their 
direction.  The  escaping  current  determines 
the  result  by  forming  a  column  of  transverse 
motion.  Without  arresting  the  centripetal 
currents,  it  changes  their  direction  downward, 
so  that  there  arises  a  resultant  motion,  which  is 
spiral. 

Were   there   no   centripetal  momentum,  or 
i  were  the  orifice  of  escape  so  large  as  to  allow 
of  no  reactions,  there  could  be  no  whirlpool. 
But  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  rotary 
motion  begins  at  the  center,  or  the  place  of  dis- 
charge, that  it  tends  to  produce  a  vortex,  and 
Kf.  it  enlarges  its  circles  outivardly. 
t  does  not  begin  on  the  exterior,  and  com- 


52  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

municate  its  motion  inwardly  till  the  whole 
mass  is  in  motion.  But  is  not  this  what  the 
theory  of  cooling  and  contracting  assumes? 
The  assumption  is  contrary  to  the  phenomena 
cited  to  support  it. 

But  it  may  be  asked,  "  How  did  the  rotary 
motion  originate  ?  There  is  rotary  motion. 
How  do  you  account  for  it?" 

We  do  not  account  for  it.  We  have  no 
physical  theory  on  the  subject. 

Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  exhibits  the  rationale 
of  axial  rotation  as  follows :  "  If  we  assume 
the  first  stage  in  nebular  condensation  to  be 
the  precipitation  into  floculi  of  denser  matter 
previously  diffused  through  a  rarer  medium,  (a 
supposition  both  physically  justified  and  in  har- 
mony with  certain  astronomical  observations,) 
we  shall  find  that  nebular  motion  is  interpret- 
able  in  pursuance  of  the  above  general  laws. 
Each  portion  of  such  vapor-like  matter  must 
begin  to  move  toward  the  common  center  of 
gravity.  The  tractive  forces,  which  would  of 
themselves  carry  it  in  a  straight  line  to  the 
center  of  gravity,  are  opposed  by  the  resistant 
forces  of  the  medium  through  which  it  is 
drawn. 


Cause  of  Rotary  Motion.  53 

"  The  direction  of  movement  must  be  the  re- 
sultant of  these — a  resultant  which,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  unsymmetrical  form  of  the 
floculus,  must  be  a  curve  directed  not  to  the 
center  of  gravity  but  toward  one  side  of  it. 
And  it  may  be  readily  shown,  that,  in  an  ag- 
gregation of  such  floculi  severally  thus  moving, 
there  must,  by  composition  of  forces,  eventually 
result  a  rotation  of  the  whole  nebula  in  one 
direction." 

But  does  not  Mr.  Spencer  in  this  instance, 
and  in  other  instances  in  which  he  substantially 
repeats  these  thoughts,  totally  ignore  one  of 
the  established  principles  of  natural  philosophy, 
namely,  the  equality  of  action  and  reaction? 
Supposing  it  to  be  true  that  the  descending 
floculi  are  unsymmetrical,  and  that  their  un- 
symmetrical forms  are  all  exactly  alike,  and 
that  their  corresponding  parts  were  set  in  the 
directions  must  favorable  for  giving  to  them 
severally  that  exact  direction  which  would  re- 
sult in  their  reaching,  not  the  center  of  gravity, 
but  a  line  which  would  be  the  axis  of  their 
combined  motion,  would  it  follow  that  the 
whole  nebula  would  take  such  an  axial  motion  ? 

What   becomes    of  that   resisting  medium 


54  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

through  which  the  floculi  descend  ?  How  does 
it  cease  to  be  a  resisting  medium  ?  The  de- 
gree of  force  with  which  it  resists  is  supposed 
to  be  sufficient  to  divert  the  floculi  from  their 
perpendicular  descent.  But  the  resisting  medi- 
um can  exert  no  more  resistant  force  than  the 
descending  floculi  exert  of  direct  force.  Then 
the  medium  must  have  a  motion  imparted  to 
it.  And  its  motion  must  be  exactly  opposite 
to  that  of  the  floculi.  If  the  floculi  descend  in 
curves,  the  medium  will  ascend  in  opposite 
curves.  No  axial  rotation  of  the  whole  mass 
can  arise  here  until  there  be  a  suspension  of 
the  law  that  action  and  reaction  are  equal.  If, 
then,  "  We  assume  the  first  stage  in  nebular 
condensation,"  we  are  not  able  to  interpret 
the  axial  motions  of  worlds  by  that  assump- 
tion. We  are  obliged  also  to  assume  that 
the  nebular  mass  had  an  original  rotary  mo- 
tion, for  the  beginning  of  which  modern  science 
is  unable  to  account,  just  as  it  is  unable  to  ac- 
Vcount  for  the  nebular  matter  itself. 


Ring  Formations.  55 


CHAPTER  IV. 

RING    FORMATIONS. 

Rings  of  Saturn — Plateau's  experiment — The  centrifugal 
force — Discussion  of  principles — The  sphere — The  spheroid — 
Calculations  of  oblateness — Could  rings  be  detached  ? 

A  SSUMING  the  existence  of  the  nebulous 
/"•»•  cosmical  sphere ;  assuming  that  it  has  in 
some  way  received  a  rotary  motion  ;  assuming 
that  it  cooled  and  contracted,  and  that  its 
rotary  motion  was  accelerated  ;  we  now  come 
to  the  examination  of  the  next  chapter  of  the 
cosmical  history. 

What  has  the  rotary  motion  accomplished  ? 
The  Nebular  Hypothesis  tells  us  what : — 

"  A  peripheral  ring  was  detached  which  be- 
came a  planet.  The  same  process  continued 
and  other  rings  were  detached,  which  became 
the  other  planets  in  due  succession.  Similarly, 
the  planetary  masses  detached  rings  which  be- 
came their  satellites.  Thus  all  the  marvelous 
uniformities  of  the  solar  system  are  but  the 
progeny  of  that  primitive  impulse  which  orig- 


56  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

inated  the  grand  rotation." — Wine  he  II.  "A 
peripheral  ring  "  is  certainly  a  pleasant  eupho- 
ny. A  "  primitive  impulse,  which  originated 
the  grand  rotation,"  is  a  truly  sonorous  phrase. 

But  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  ask,  Have  we 
any  warrant  in  known  principles  and  facts  to 
justify  the  conception  which  these  terms  ex- 
press ? 

The  advocates  of  the  Nebular  Hypothesis  re- 
fer us  to  the  revelations  of  the  telescope. 
There  is,  it  is  alleged,  an  instance  of  the  ring- 
condition  to  be  seen  in  the  heavens.  Saturn 
has  rings.  It  is  conjectured  that  Neptune  has 
rings.  "  In  Saturn  we  discover  a  planet  which, 
if  we  may  trust  the  determinations,  is  even 
lighter  than  water.  No  surface  features  of  the 
body  are  discernible,  and  it  seems,  like  Jupiter, 
to  remain  enveloped  in  a  mass  of  belted  clouds. 
Its  most  striking  phenomena  are  its  eight  sat- 
ellites and  its  grand  system  of  rings. 

"  The  first  thought  suggested  by  the  latter  is 
their  demonstration  of  the  truth  of  the  nebular 
theory  of  planetary  origin.  Here  we  have,  as 
a  fact,  a  perpetual  instance  of  the  ring  condition 
— a  demonstration  even  more  convincing  than 
the  laboratory  experiment  of  Plateau.  Is  this 


Ring  Formations.  57 

planet  in  a  more  primitive  condition  than 
Jupiter,  at  once  the  younger  and  the  larger 
body? 

"  An  affirmative  answer  is  indicated  both  by 
the  rings  and  the  low  specific  gravity  ;  and  the 
intensity  of  its  light,  making  allowance  for 
greater  distance  and  inferior  bulk,  is  almost 
equal  to  that  of  Jupiter. 

"  But  the  substance  of  the  rings  is  not  aeriform, 
as  we  suppose  the  normal  ring-condition  to  be. 
It  is  neither  solid  nor  fluid,  as  Professor  Pierce 
has  demonstrated  ;  but,  according  to  a  sugges- 
tion of  Proctor,  may  be  in  a  granular  state — 
each  constituent  grain  (so  to  speak)  answering 
to  a  miniature  moon,  and  the  whole  assem- 
blage, millions  in  number,  disposing  them- 
selves, according  to  the  varying  influences,  in 
two,  three,  or  more  annuli." — Wine/tell. 

This  seems  to  us  a  singular  medley  of 
strangely  contradictory  statements.  First.  In 
Saturn  we  have,  "as  a  fact,  a  perpetual  in- 
stance of  the  ring-condition  ;  "  but  afterward 
there  is  no  ring-condition  at  all,  but  millions 
of  miniature  moons.  Secondly.  This  "per- 
petual instance  of  the  ring-condition  "  (which, 
after  all,  is  not  an  instance  of  the  ring  con- 


58  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

dition)  is  a  "  demonstration  of  the  truth  of  the 
nebular  theory  of  planetary  origin  ;  "  and  yet, 
though  according  to  that  theory  the  ring-con- 
dition is  an  aeriform  condition,  this  system  of 
miniature  moons  is  not  a  system  of  aeriform 
bodies.  Instead,  then,  of  being  a  demonstra- 
tion of  the  truth  of  the  nebular  theory  of 
planetary  origin,  it  is  suggestive  of  the  incom- 
patibility of  that  theory  with  the  observed 
facts  of  planetary  existence.  The  non-con- 
tinuity of  the  apparent  rings,  which  has  been 
suggested  by  Proctor,  is  now  generally  received 
as  a  truth  by  astronomers,  who  are  able  only 
on  this  supposition  to  account  for  their  ob- 
served motions. 

Nor  is  it  difficult  to  understand  how  less  than 
millions  of  small  moons,  revolving  around  the 
body  of  Saturn  in  orbits  whose  planes  lie 
edgewise,  or  slightly  inclined  to  our  line  of 
vision,  and  completing  their  revolution  in  ten 
hours  and  thirty-two  minutes,  should  produce 
the  illusion  of  a  ring-condition.  A  few  hun- 
dred small  moons  flying  at  the  rate  of  48,000 
miles  an  hour  would,  we  think,  be  sufficient 
to  produce  the  illusion.  Yet  it  is  no  more  in- 
credible that  thousands  of  moons  should  be 


Ring  Formations.  59 

found  revolving  around  a  planet,  than  that 
thousands  of  asteroids  should  be  revolving 
around  the  sun  inside  the  orbit  of  Jupiter. 

The  laboratory  experiment  »of  Plateau  is 
also  referred  to.  This  experiment  has  been 
the  ground  of  a  vast  amount  of  faith  in  the 
nebular  theory.  Winchell  says,  it  is  convinc- 
ing ;  but  the  ring-condition  of  Saturn  is  dem- 
onstration, more  convincing.  Our  readers  will, 
therefore,  give  to  Plateau's  celebrated  experi- 
ment the  consideration  it  deserves. 

Certainly,  we  must  admit  that  the  first  an- 
nouncement of  the  experiment  produced  a 
great  sensation  in  scientific  circles. 

'M.  Plateau,  a  Belgian  physicist,  succeeded 
in  producing  rings  around  a  revolving  body. 

If  any  one  wishes  to  try  the  experiment  let 
him  take  a  glass  vessel  and  fill  it  half  full  of 
spirits  of  wine.  Now  drop  into  it  a  small  quan- 
tity of  olive  oil.  The  oil,  being  of  greater 
specific  gravity  than  the  spirits,  will  sink. 
Now  add  water  until  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  mixture  is  just  sufficient  to  float  the  oil 
near  the  surface.  The  oil  will  have  assumed 
the  globular  form.  Now,  through  the  globule 
of  oil  pass  a  wire,  which  has  first  been  mechan- 


60  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

ically  adjusted  so  that  it  can  be  rapidly  re- 
volved. Revolve  it,  at  first  slowly,  then  gradu- 
ally increase  the  rapidity  of  the  rotation.  The 
oil  globe  will  revolve  around  the  wire  as  an 
axis.  With  the  increase  of  the  velocity  of  ro- 
tation the  globe  flattens,  and  finally  detaches 
a  ring,  which  breaks  up  into  globules,  and  they 
revolve  around  the  central  portion.  This  is 
the  experiment  which  is  only  less  convincing 
as  to  the  truth  of  the  nebular  theory  of  plane- 
tary origin  than  the  demonstration  afforded 
by  the  ring-condition  of  Saturn ;  a  condition 
which,  it  is  confessed,  does  not  exist  at  all. 

Let  us  now  examine  this  experiment.  What 
are  the  elements  of  it  which  are  analogous  to 
the  details  of  the  nebular  theory,  so  that  this 
is  worthy  to  convince  an  intelligent  inquirer  of 
the  truth  of  that  ? 

1.  The  substance  chosen  for  the  experiment 
is  one  which  has  a  high  degree  of  coherency 
compared  with  its  specific  gravity.     The  cos- 
mical  mass  is  supposed  to  have  been  aeriform, 
and  of  extreme  tenuity,  in  which  case  its  co- 
herency must  have  been  almost  zero. 

2.  The  attractions  of  the  particles  of  the  oil 
for  each  other  are  so  feeble  that  they  are  only 


Ring  Formations.  61 

able  to  produce  the  spherical  arrangement 
when  inclosed  in  a  medium  of  the  same  specific 
gravity,  and,  when  revolved,  they  the  more 
readily  obey  the  centrifugal  force,  and  the 
whole  mass  breaks  up  into  fragments ;  but  the 
masses  which  are  supposed  to  have  been  de- 
tached from  the  cosmical  sphere  were  minute 
portions  compared  to  the  whole  mass  which  re- 
mained unbroken. 

3.  The  experimental  substance  revolves  by 
the  application  of  external  force  ;  but  the  cos- 
mical sphere  is  supposed  to  have  revolved  by 
a  force  originating  within  itself. 

4.  The  experimental  substance  revolved  in  a 
medium  of  its  own  specific  gravity.     But  the 
cosmical  sphere  is  supposed  to  have  revolved 
in  void  space. 

5.  The  experimental  substance  is  subject 
to  the  frictional  resistance  of  the  medium  in 
which  it  revolves,  which  resistance  must  in- 
crease as  the  revolving  substance  flattens  and 
extends.  But  the  cosmical  sphere  is  not 
supposed  to  have  been  thus  resisted  by  any 
external  matter. 

6.  The  rotation  of  the  oil  globule  imparts 
to  the  medium  in  which  it  floats  a  rotary 


62  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

motion.  The  centrifugal  force  having  over- 
come the  coherency  of  the  oil,  it  breaks  up  into 
minuter  globules,  and  these  continue  to  revolve 
for  a  time,  being  carried  around  by  the  circular 
current  of  the  medium  itself.  But  the  de- 
tached masses  of  nebulous  matter  are  not  sup- 
posed to  have  floated  in  any  medium  whose 
motion  directed  theirs. 

Are  the  physical  conditions  in  the  two  cases 
the  same  or  analogous  ? 

Are  the  motor  forces  the  same  or  analogous  ? 

Are  the  results  the  same  or  analogous  ? 

To  each  of  these  questions  we  think  the  un- 
biased mind  will  answer  no. 

The  fact  that  the  globule  of  oil  is  flattened 
and  enlarged  and  broken  up  into  minuter  glob- 
ules, and  revolved  around  the  center,  is  the 
only  feature  of  the  experiment  which  may  be 
said  to  be  analogous  to  the  assumptions  of  the 
nebular  theory ;  and  here  the  analogy  is  only 
phenomenal. 

Could  M.  Plateau  devise  some  means  by 
which  a  globe  of  air  could  be  revolved  in 
a  void,  and  air  rings  could  be  detached  by 
the  centrifugal  force  alone,  and  these  rings 
could  be  gathered  into  smaller  air  globes  and 


Ring  Formations.  63 

kept  revolving  around  the  parent  mass  in  the 
void,  he  would  thus  exhibit  something  more 
nearly  analogous  to  the  hypothetical  cosmical 
evolution. 

Having  thus  glanced  at  the  supposed  illus- 
trations and  demonstrations  of  the  nebular 
theory,  afforded  on  the  grand  scale  by  the 
phenomenal  ring-condition  of  Saturn,  and  on 
the  minute  scale  by  a  few  drops  of  oil,  we  now 
wish  to  examine  the  theory  on  its  own  prem- 
ises, and  bring  it  to  the  test  of  philosophical 
and  mathematical  principles. 

For  this  purpose  we  assume  the  existence 
of  the  spherical  cosmical  mass  in  space  unirPv 
fluenced  by  any  force  outside  of  itself,  and  we  \ 
assume  for  this  spherical  mass  an  axial  rotation, 
which  by  the   contraction  of  the  mass  must  / 
have  been  accelerated.     So  much  we  assume/ 
with  the  advocates  of  the  theory. 

Now  we  know  that  rotary  motion  produces 
what  is  known  as  the  centrifugal  force.  But 
the  centrifugal  force  is  nothing  more  or  less 
than  the  tendency  of  a  body  moving  in  a  circle 
to  go  on  exactly  in  the  direction  in  which  it  is 
moving  at  any  given  point  in  the  circle,  and 
that  direction  is  always  a  tangent  of  the  circle. 


64  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

The  centrifugal  force  is  the  projectile  force 
of  circular  motion. 

With  the  increase  of  the  rate  of  rotation 
there  is  an  increase  of  this  projectile  force. 
If  we  double  the  rate  of  motion  we  quadruple 
the  force  of  the  same  mass.  But  whatever 
may  be  the  rate  of  the  rotation,  a  projectile 
can  never  be  thrown  farther  out  by  the  cen- 
trifugal force  than  the  tangent  of  the  circle. 
Conceive  now  of  every  point  on  the  circle  as 
being  thus  projected  along  the  tangent  line, 
and  the  result  must  be  an  expansion  of  the  cir- 
cle itself  to  an  extent  determined  by  the  rate 


But  the  rate  of  rotation  being  the  same  in 
circles  of  different  diameters,  that  is,  the  com- 
plete revolution  being  accomplished  in  the 
same  time,  the  larger  the  circle  the  greater  the 
centrifugal  force,  because  the  velocity  must  be 
greater. 

If,  then,  a  sphere  be  rotating  on  its  axis,  its 
greatest  circle  of  rotation  will  be  its  equator ; 
and  every  parallel  of  latitude  will  be  a  smaller 
circle  of  rotation,  until  at  the  pole  it  will  be,  so 
to  speak,  the  rotation  of  a  point.  Therefore, 
at  the  poles  there  can  be  no  centrifugal  force, 


Ring  Formations.  65 

while  at  every  successive  point,  in  passing  from 
the  pole  to  the  equator,  there  will  be  an  in- 
creasing centrifugal  force,  and  at  the  equator 
the  greatest  of  all.  If,  then,  the  substance  of 
the  revolving  sphere  be  of  a  yielding  nature, 
the  effect  of  the  centrifugal  force  must  be  to 
elevate  the  equatorial  region,  and,  correspond- 
ingly, to  depress  the  polar  region. 

We  have  an  example  of  the  effect  of  the 
centrifugal  force  on  the  shape  of  a  revolving 
sphere  in  the  earth  itself.  Here  the  equatorial 
region  has  been  elevated  and  the  polar  region 
depressed  until  there  is  a  difference  of  twenty- 
six  and  a  half  miles  between  the  polar  diame- 
ter and  the  equatorial  diameter. 

By  the  centrifugal  force  the  earth  is  rendered 
an  oblate  spheroid. 

To  indicate  the  rate  of  the  rotary  motion  in 
different  bodies  we  notice  the  time  of  the  rota- 
tion, and  what  part  of  a  complete  rotation  is 
performed  in  a  certain  specified  time. 

Usually  one  hour  is  the  specified  unit  of 
time.  Then,  inasmuch  as  the  earth  revolves 
on  its  axis  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  it  must 
perform  one  twenty-fourth  of  a  revolution  in 
one  hour.  But  -^  of  a  rotation  is  jV  of  360 


66  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

degrees,  or  fifteen  degrees  ;  and,  therefore,  we 
say  that  the  rate  of  the  earth's  axial  rotation  is 
fifteen  degrees  an  hour,  just  as  we  would  say 
of  a  railroad  train  that  it  moves  at  the  rate  of 
.  fifteen  miles  an  hour. 

/  Miles  are  a  definite  linear  measure.     Degrees 

/  are  a  definite  circular  measure  ;  but  it  must  be 

remembered  that  the  rate  is  the  same  for  all 

\    parallel  circles  of  the  same  sphere,  be  they 

\great  or  small. 

The  earth's  axial  rotation  at  the  rate  of 
fifteen  degrees  an  hour  produces  a  centrifugal 
force  sufficient  to  make  the  equatorial  diameter 
twenty-six  and  a  half  miles  greater  than  the 
polar  diameter ;  making  the  oblateness  of  the 
earth  ^g  of  its  mean  diameter. 

The  planet  Jupiter  affords  a  still  more  strik- 
ing example  of  the  effect  of  the  centrifugal 
force  in  giving  oblateness  to  a  spheroid.  The 
axial  rotation  of  Jupiter  is  accomplished  in 
less  than  ten  hours. 

The  rate  of  the  rotation  is,  therefore,  thirty- 
six  degrees  per  hour,  which  is  two  and  two 
fifths  times  that  of  the  earth.  Moreover,  the 
density  of  Jupiter  is  only  about  one  fourth 
that  of  the  earth,  and  hence,  by  estimation,  the 


Ring  Formations.  6/ 

oblateness  of  Jupiter  has  been  found  to  be 
about  TV  of  his  mean  diameter,  but  by  obser- 
vation it  is  T'T. 

Saturn  is  a  still  more  remarkable  example, 
his  oblateness  being  about  TV  of  his  diameter. 
The  axial  rotation  is  at  a  lower  rate  than  that 
of  Jupiter,  but  its  density  is  also  only  about 
half  as  great.  Great,  however,  as  is  the  oblate- 
ness of  Saturn,  a  person  standing  on  its  equator 
would  have  around  him  an  expanse  the  curv- 
ature of  whose  surface  would  be  much  less 
than  that  of  the  earth's  equatorial  region. 

What  would  be  the  effect  were  the  axial 
rotation  of  Jupiter  to  be  accelerated  to  twice 
its  present  rate  ? 

Then  its  rate  would  be  seventy-two  degrees 
an  hour,  or  4.8  times  as  great  as  that  of  the 
earth.  The  centrifugal  force  of  this  high  rate 
of  rotation  would  be  about  twenty-three  times 
that  of  the  earth's  rotation  if  the  two  bodies 
were  of  equal  density;  but  as  Jupiter's  density 
is  only  one  fourth  that  of  the  earth,  the  effect 
of  centrifugal  force  will  be  four  times  as  great, 
and  will  be  expressed  by  ^W  of  the  diameter ; 
for  4.82  X4Xyfa=-ffo.  The  oblateness  of  Jupi- 
ter would  then  be  one  third  of  his  mean 


68  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

diameter.  And  yet  Jupiter  would  be  but  a 
spheroid. 

So  far  as  we  can  see,  in  the  light  of  known 
physical  principles,  the  Continuity  of  the  planet- 
ary substance  would  remain  unbroken.  The 
polar  diameter  would  still  be  fifty-six  thousand 
miles,  and  its  meridional  curvature  at  the  equa- 
tor would  be  far  less  than  that  of  the  earth  at 
the  present  time. 

We  can  see  no  promise  here  of  ring  for- 
mations. 

Apply  the  same  principles  to  the  supposed 
original  cosmical  mass,  a  sphere  more  than  six 
thousand  millions  of  miles  in  diameter.  Im- 
agine it  in  motion  on  an  axis.  Imagine  it  ex- 
tending out  equatorially  and  settling  down 
at  the  poles ;  to  what  extent  can  this  process 
be  carried,  and  what  will  result  ? 

Is  the  rotary  motion,  however  much  it  may 
be  accelerated,  adequate  to  the  production  of 
a  peripheral  ring  ? 

We  must  not  forget  that  this  cosmical  sphere 
is  revolving  in  a  void.  There  is  no  external 
matter  whose  friction  or  attraction  can  modify 
the  result.  If  it  be  alleged  that  there  is  other 
matter  in  the  universe  whose  attraction  must 


Ring  Formations.  69 

have  reached  the  cosmical  sphere  and  affected 
it,  we  reply  that  the  nebular  hypothesis  does 
not  take  such  external  attractions  into  ac- 
count. It  professes  to  find  all  its  world- 
forming  forces  within  the  mass,  and  the  whole 
planetary  history  is  one  of  evolution. 

The  only  force  accredited  with  the  work  of 
producing  a  peripheral  ring  is  the  centrifugal 
force.  The  ring  is  only  alleged  as  an  incident 
in  the  process  of  planetary  genesis  by  the 
grand  rotation,  and  the  ring  is  alleged  only 
because  the  centrifugal  force  is  known  to  en- 
large the  equatorial  measure  of  a  sphere. 

The  force  of  gravity  would  arrange  the  cos- 
mical matter  into  a  true  sphere.     The  centrifu- 
gal force   would   change    it   into   a   spheroid. 
But   the   equation   of  these    two   forces   will 
always  be  such  that  there  cannot  be  such  a 
thing  as  the  casting  off  of  any  portion  of  the 
mass.     We  could  conceive  of  the  entire  co«P\ 
mical  matter  as  assuming  the  form  of  a  ring,    \ 
but  we  know  of  no  fact   in  nature,  and   no     J 
'  principle,  that  warrants  the  idea  that  a 
could  be  detached. 

But  we  may  readily  conceive  that  another 
effect,  which  also  is  claimed  by  the  advocates 


70  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

of  the  nebular  theory,  would  follow.  The 
more  elongated  the  spheroid  became  the  more 
extensive  would  be  the  surface  exposed  to  the 
outlying  frigid  space,  and  the  more  rapidly 
the  mass  must  cool  off  and  contract.  If  we 
suppose  the  equatorial  region  to  be  thinnest 
it  must  contract  most  rapidly,  and  by  its 
contraction  diminish  the  oblateness  of  the 
spheroid. 

The  advocates  of  the  theory  find,  in  this 
equatorial  contraction,  the  means  of  accelerat- 
ing the  rotary  motion.  And  yet  none  of  them 
have  appeared  to  be  conscious  that  an  elongation 
of  the  equatorial  diameter  must,  on  the  same 
rational  grounds,  diminish  the  rate  of  the  rotary 
motion.  But  if  the  contraction  of  the  circle 
of  rotation  accelerates  the  velocity,  the  en- 
largement of  the  circle  of  rotation  must  dimin- 
ish the  velocity. 

Here,  then,  in  the  nebular  theory,  we  have 
dilation  and  contraction  hypothetically  incident 
to  the  cosmical  history,  incidents  alleged  by 
the  theory,  and  one  of  them  quoted  to  show 
how  the  grand  rotation  was  "  inevitably  ac- 
celerated; "  the  other  quoted  only  to  show  how 
the  ring-condition  could  arise,  quite  uncon- 


Ring  Formations.  71 

scious  of  the  truth  that,  if  contraction  acceler- 
ates, dilation  must  retard,  the  rotary  motion. 
Between  them  must   not   the    rotary  motion^) 
remain  constant  ? 

But,  in  any  event,  we  do  not  find  that  the 
centrifugal  force  could  detach  a  ring  from  the 
equatorial  regions  of  the  mass.  The  centrifu- 
gal force  acting  proportionately  at  all  latitudes, 
the  thinning  out  at  the  equator  cannot  be 
such  as  would  be  required  to  meet  the  ex- 
igencies of  the  theory.  The  whole  figure  must 
be  proportionately  molded  by  the  forces  which 
are  at  work. 

As  the  equator  arises  the  pole  must  be  de- 
pressed, and  every  point  between  them  must 
be  affected.  Not  to  the  extent  to  which  the 
equatorial  matter  is  projected  outward  by  the 
centrifugal  force,  but  to  an  extent  proportion- 
ate to  the  diameters  of  the  circles,  will  the 
matter  under  every  parallel  of  latitude  be  pro- 
jected forward  by  the  centrifugal  force  in  the 
planes  of  those  circles,  while  the  gravity  of  all 
will  tend  toward  the  center  of  the  mass. 

Thus,  while  the  centrifugal  force  would  flat- 
ten the  spheroid,  the  gravity  of  the  mass  binds 
it,  as  nearly  as  possible,  to  the  spherical  form. 


72  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

Gravitation  assures  the  continuity  of  the  mass. 

In    Plateau's  experiment  the   only  binding 

force    was    the    cohesive    attractions    of   the 

molecules   of  oil.     Cohesive    attraction    once 

overcome,  either  by  the  centrifugal  force  or  by 

abrasion  by  the  medium  in  which  the  matter 

revolved,  the  oil  globules  could  only  separate ; 

and  the  rotation  of  the   medium  continuing, 

the  globules  could  only  continue  on,  borne  by 

the  circular  currents  around  the  axis  of  rota- 

rtlon.     But  gravitation  is  never  overcome.     It 

Ltontinues  to  act  on  the  mass  and  on  each  atom 

of  the  mass  through  all  distances  and  in  all 

situations,  and  so  it  binds  the  mass  together. 

We  can,  as  before  stated,  conceive  of  a  rota- 
tion which  would  throw  all  the  matter  of  a 
sphere  out  from  the  center,  so  that  the  sphere 
/would  become  a  ring ;  but  the  ring  would  be 
/  cylindrical,  and  there  is  nothing  in  the  single 
Mact  of  rotation  to  shatter   such  a  ring   into 
fragments  so  long  as  its  constituent  materials 
remain  plastic.     But  the  formation  of  such  a 
ring  is  not  in  the  Nebular  Hypothesis. 

Moreover,  the  supposition  that  such  a  ring 
could  be  produced  by  such  a  rotary  motion  as 
would  arise  from  inevitable  acceleration,  is  op- 


Ring  Formations.  73 

posed  by  the  postulate  that  it  is  contraction  \ 
which  accelerates  the  rotary  motion,  for  by  / 
our  supposition  there  is  not  contraction  but  / 
diametrical  enlargement  of  the  revolving  mass: 
The  nebular  theory,  however,  does  not  con- 
template the  formation  of  such  a  ring.  The 
ring  hypothetical  is  a  peripheral  ring.  We  are 
to  conceive  of  the  cosmical  spheroid  as  letting 
go  of  its  equatorial  protuberance,  so  that  it  be- 
came detached,  lifted  away  from  the  body  of 
the  spheroid,  and  left  to  revolve  on  its  own  ac- 
count. But  the  advocates  of  the  theory  do 
not  explain  by  what  force  the  matter  which  is 
thus  separated  is  lifted  away,  while  the  ad- 
jacent matter  is  not  lifted  away.  No  repul- 
sions enter  into  this  theory. 

The  "  grand  rotation  "  accounts  for  every- 
thing. 

But  we  submit  that,  according  to  the  theory, 
the  grand  rotation  involves  the  whole  mass  of 
the  cosmical  matter. 

There  is  a  rotation  of  the  earth,  and  it  ele- 
vates the  equatorial  region,  but  it  does  not 
lift  it  away  from  the  earth,  and  it  never  did. 
That  the  "  moon  is  an  outlying  fragment  of 
the  earth's  former  equator,"  may  be  an  allow- 


74  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

able  figure  of  speech,  but  it  is  a  bald  assump- 
tion in  physics. 

The  truth  is,  that  just  so  soon  as  there  is  an 
elevation  of  the  equatorial  surface,  the  force  of 
gravity  brings  in  supporting  matter  from  the 
latitudes,  and  the  continuity  is  maintained. 

And  it  must  be  so  always,  unless  there  be 
some  adverse  principle  of  physics  of  which  we 
are  not  yet  informed. 


Actual  Velocities.  75 


CHAPTER  V. 

ACTUAL  VELOCITIES. 

Actual  velocities — The  Sun's  motions — Planetary  motion — 
"  The  original  grand  rotation." 

HAVING  considered  the  possible  effects 
of  a  supposed  accelerated  velocity  in 
the  rotation  of  the  cosmical  mass,  we  now 
come  to  the  consideration  of  actual  velocities. 

Taking  a  survey  of  the  solar  system,  we  find 
that  rotary  motion  exists  in  two  forms,  which 
we  denominate  axial  and  orbital. 

The  axial  rotation  is  the  rotation  of  a  body 
on  its  own  axis.  Such  a  rotation  is  found  in 
the  sun,  in  most  of  the  planets,  and  in  their 
satellites.  Uranus  and  Neptune  are  not 
positively  known  to  revolve  on  their  axes,  but 
the  analogies  of  the  system  justify  the  belief 
that  they  do. 

Orbital  motion  is  the  motion  which  one  body 
has  while  revolving  around  another  body. 

The  satellites  revolve  in  orbits  around  the 
planets  of  which  they  are  the  satellites.  The 


76  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

planets  revolve,  in  orbits,  around  the  sun, 
carrying  their  satellites  with  them. 

The  asteroids  are  small  planets  which  re- 
volve also  around  the  sun. 

Besides  these  examples  of  rotary  motion, 
that  granular  system,  which  was  long  regarded 
as  a  system  of  rings,  revolves  around  the 
planet  Saturn  in  nearly  circular  orbits.  The 
comets,  also,  because  they  revolve  around  the 
sun,  are  to  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
solar  system  ;  yet,  because  of  the  great  eccen- 
tricity of  their  orbits  and  the  great  length  of 
their  periodic  times,  are  regarded  as  strangers 
and  foreigners.  Still  the  comets  must  be 
accounted  for  as  members  of  the  cosmical 
family. 

The  sun  itself  is  moving  through  the  heav- 
ens in  the  direction  of  the  constellation  Her- 
cules, according  to  Herschell.  Herschell  an- 
nounced his  discovery  in  1783,  fixing  the  point 
in  the  heavens  toward  which  the  sun  is  moving- 
at  two  hundred  and  fifty-seven  degrees  in 
right  ascension  and  twenty-five  degrees  north- 
ern declination. 

MAEDLER  has  announced,  as  the  result  of 
his  observations  and  estimates,  that  the  center 


Actual  Velocities.  77 

of  the  sun's  orbit  is  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Alcyone.  Although  no  one,  so  far  as  we 
know,  has  computed  all  the  elements  thereof, 
there  is  little  reason  to  doubt  that  the  sun  re- 
volves in  an  orbit.  And  this  fact  carries  our 
thought  to  another  beginning.  Cosmical  his- 
tory is  but  meager  if  it  leave  out  the  origin  of 
the  solar  cosmical  mass  itself.  If  satellites  are 
the  progeny  of  the  rotation  of  planetary  mass- 
es— if  planets  are  the  progeny  of  the  rotation 
of  that  cosmical  mass  of  which  the  sun  is  the 
residuum — then,  whence  this  vast  cosmical 
mass  itself,  which  originally  embraced  not  only 
the  sun,  but  also  all  the  planets  and  all  the 
satellites  ?  Was  it  also  once  a  peripheral  ring  ? 
If  so,  of  what?  And  has  the  sun  an  orbital 
motion  through  space  which  is  the  progeny  of 
a  still  older  and  grander  rotation  ? 

But  let  us  return.  We  are  ascending  heights, 
whence,  looking  down,  thought  grows  dizzy. 

If  the  Nebular  Hypothesis  be  true,  we 
ought  to  be  able  to  find  some  trace  of 
the  "  original  grand  rotation."  Somewhere, 
among  all  these  revolving  bodies,  there  must 
be  at  least  a  clew  to  it. 

The   theory  is,  that  the   original   cosmical 


78  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

sphere  in  some  way  obtained  an  axial  rotation. 
This  axial  rotation  was  accelerated  to  such  a 
degree  that  it  cast  off  from  the  original  a 
planetary  mass,  which  continued  to  revolve 
around  the  parent  body.  Though  the  motion 
of  the  original  mass  was  axial,  yet  the  con- 
tinued motion  of  the  planetary  mass  was  or- 
bital, and  it  also  acquired  an  axial  motion. 

The  original  mass  is  supposed  to  have  grad- 
ually contracted  ;  its  motion  was  thereby  accel- 
erated, and  it  threw  off  another  planetary 
mass.  The  first  planetary  mass  also  contract- 
ed, its  axial  motion  was  accelerated,  and  it 
threw  off  a  mass  which  became  a  satellite. 
And  this  process  continued  until  all  the  planets 
were  thrown  off  from  the  original,  and  all  the 
satellites  from  their  planets. 

Such  is  the  theory,  and  in  the  light  of  it  we 
again  remark,  we  surely  ought  to  be  able  to 
find  a  clew  to  the  original  grand  rotation. 

We  suppose,  in  fact,  that  the  orbital  velocity 
of  each  of  the  planets  must  indicate  what  the 
axial  velocity  of  the  cosmical  mass  was  at  the 
time  that  each  planetary  mass  was  projected  into 
space. 

No  one  will,  we  think,  claim  that  the  veloc- 


Actual  Velocities.  79 

ity  of  the  planetary  mass  in  its  orbit  could  be 
greater  than  the  axial  velocity  which  projected 
it  into  space. 

Allowing  that  it  received  a  certain  initial 
velocity  at  the  moment  of  detachment,  it 
would  maintain  that  velocity  only  until  the 
attraction  of  the  parent  mass  should  overcome 
it,  and  it  would  then  commence  a  return  to- 
ward its  source.  After  commencing  its  return 
its  velocity  must  be  accelerated  until  its  centrif- 
ugal force  should  again  preponderate  and  carry 
it  away  into  remoter  space  again.  But  the  mean 
of  its  velocities  would  be  its  original  velocity, 
and  its  orbital  period  would  be  the  time  occupied 
by  the  parent  mass  in  making  one  axial  revolu- 
tion at  the  date  when  the  planetary  mass  was 
detached. 

The  next  question  which  arises  is  this:  Is 
the  orbital  period  of  a  planet  now  what  it  was 
when  the  planetary  mass  was  detached  ? 

We  know  of  no  force  but  gravity  to  affect 
planetary  motion ;  and  we  have  seen  what  the 
result  would  be  when  there  was  but  a  single 
planetary  mass  and  the  original  cosmical  mass 
within  the  limits  of  the  solar  system. 

When  other  planetary  masses  were  detached, 


8o  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

the  relative  positions  of  these  masses  would 
temporarily  affect  the  result.  But  there  could 
never  arise  such  a  collocation  of  the  spheres  as 
would  destroy  the  equilibrium  of  the  system 
as  a  whole.  Suppose,  then,  that  the  orbital 
motion  of  one  planetary  mass  be  at  one  time 
so  retarded  by  the  attraction  of  another  plan- 
etary mass  as  to  lengthen  its  periodic  time,  at 
another  time  the  effect  of  the  attraction  of 
the  same  planetary  mass  will  be  to  shorten  its 
periodic  time,  so  that  the  sum  of  all  its  effects 
shall  be  zero.  Then  the  periodic  times  may 
be  said  to  be  the  same  from  age  to  age. 

The  mathematics  of  astronomy  are  exceed- 
ingly exact.  The  planetary  periods  are  com- 
puted to  seconds  of  time.  And  so  reliable  are 
these  computations,  that  on  the  credit  of  them 
individuals,  learned  societies,  and  even  na- 
tions, incur  vast  expense  and  fit  out  expe- 
ditions for  the  purpose  of  observing  certain 
astronomical  phenomena  which  have  been 
predicted  for  years.  They  are  predicted  math- 
ematically. The  very  second  when  the  phe- 
nomenon shall  be  first  visible,  and  the  spot 
on  the  earth's  surface  from  which,  if  at- 
mospheric conditions  are  favorable,  it  can  be 


Actual  Velocities.  81 

most  advantageously  observed,  are  noted  and 
announced. 

We  write  in  December,  1873,  and  yet  we 
know  that  on  the  8th  of  December,  1874,  a 
transit  of  Venus  will  occur.  But  we  know,  also, 
that  if  we  would  see  it  we  must  have  a  station 
somewhere  in  the  remote  east ;  for  only  to 
Asia,  Australia,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  etc., 
will  it  be '  visible.  Already  the  world  is 
astir  with  preparations  to  observe  that  transit. 
The  world  has  faith  in  astronomical  calcula- 
tions. It  is  entirely  within  the  range  of  such 
computations  to  declare  the  exact  moment  of 
the  beginning  of  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  a  thou- 
sand years  hence,  and  to  describe  its  character, 
as  partial,  total,  or  annular,  and  to  announce 
to  what  portions  of  the  earth  it  will  be  visible. 
In  like  manner  astronomers  foretell  the  time 
of  a  conjunction  of  any  two  of  the  planets,  or 
of  any  planet  with  the  sun,  or  the  occultation 
of  planet  or  fixed  star. 

True,  all  this  would  be  possible  were  the 
orbital  periods  variable  quantities,  provided 
the  increment  of  variation  were  known.  But 
so  far  as  we  know  there  is  no  permanent 
change  in  the  orbital  periods. 


82  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

It  is  true  that  we  do  not  find  uniform  or- 
bital motion.  The  orbits  are  all  more  or  less 
elliptical,  and  the  planets  move  from  their 
aphelion  to  their  perihelion  with  accelerated 
velocity,  and  from  their  perihelion  to  their 
aphelion  with  retarded  velocity.  But  while 
the  motion  is  thus  variable,  the  mean  of  their 
motions  for  a  thousand  years  is  a  constant 
quantity. 

The  axial  periods,  or  planetary  days,  are 
unchanging.  Here  we  find  what  we  do  not 
find  in  the  orbital  motion,  absolutely  unvary- 
ing rate  of  motion. 

Of  orbital  motion  we  speak  of  the  perihelion 
velocity,  the  aphelion  velocity,  and  the  mean 
velocity.  But  when  we  speak  of  the  axial 
rotation  of  a  planet  we  never  speak  of  different 
velocities. 

The  rate  of  rotation  is  constant — unvarying. 
From  day  to  day,  from  year  to  year,  from  age 
to  age,  it  changes  not.  It  is  the  one  only 
uniform  motion  of  which  we  know  any  thing. 
What  the  axial  rotation  of  the  earth  was  at  the 
morning  of  time,  that  it  is  now.  "  The  earth 
has  not  varied  in  its  revolution,"  says  Steele, 
"  rta  of  a  second  in  2,000  years."  Then  it 


Aftual  Velocities.  83 

does  not  vary  a  second  in  two  hundred  thou- 
sand years.  Laplace  estimated  the  varia- 
tion at  z%~5  °f  a  second  in  2,000  years,  which 
would  be  at  the  rate  of  one  second  in  600,000 
years. 

Such  being  the  constant  character  of  plan- 
etary periods,  we  are  justified  in  the  declaration 
that  the  present  orbital  period  of  each  planet 
must  indicate  what  the  axial  period  of  the 
cosmical  mass  was  at  the  time  the  planetary 
mass  was  detached.  And  if  this  conclusion  is 
justified,  then  the  axial  period  of  the  "  original 
grand  rotation  "  was  exactly  what  the  orbital 
period  of  Neptune  now  is. 

And,  indeed,  we  understand  the  advocates 
of  the  nebular  theory  to  affirm  substantially 
the  same  thing.  They  reason  from  the  present 
motions  of  the  solar  system.  The  planets  now 
revolve  on  their  axes ;  the  sun  now  revolves  on 
its  axis ;  the  planets  and  their  satellites  now 
revolve  in  orbits,  the  planetary  orbits  are  now 
nearly  circular,  and  they  are  now  nearly  in  one 
plane,  etc.  These  are  facts  which  are  now  ob- 
servable in  the  mechanism  and  movements  of 
the  planetary  system,  and  they  are  supposed 
to  point  to  a  condition  of  the  planetary  matter 


84  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

and  to  movements  therein  millions  of  ages 
ago. 

In  maintaining,  therefore,  the  postulate  that 
the  axial  period  of  the- original  cosmical  mass 
was  what  the  orbital  period  of  Neptune  ts,  we 
think  we  are  supported  by  the  reasoning  of 
the  nebular  theorists  themselves. 

Now  we  propose  to  examine  the  orbital 
period  of  Neptune  with  the  view  of  ascertain- 
ing what  was  the  original  grand  rotation. 
When  we  have  found  it  we  will  examine  it 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  question 
of  its  adequacy  to  produce  a  peripheral  ring, 
supposing  the  production  of  such  a  ring  to  be 
possible  under  any  circumstances. 

The  sidereal  period  of  Neptune  is  60,127 
days  or  1,443,048  hours.  The  rate  of  the  rota- 
tion, then,  is,  .00025  of  a  degree  (twenty-five, 
one  hundred  thousandths  of  one  degree)  per 
hour,  or  about  T\  of  a  second  per  hour.  The 
rate  of  the  earth's  rotation  is  fifteen  degrees  an 
hour,  and  at  this  rate  it  produces  an  oblate- 
ness  of  only  2%g.  But  this  rate  is  sixty  thou- 
sand times  as  great  as  that  of  the  supposed 
cosmical  mass,,  and  on  matter  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  water  would  be  six  hundred  million 


Actual  Velocities.  85 

times  as  efficient  in  producing  oblateness  as 
the  rate  of  motion  found  in  the  original 
grand  rotation. 

The  conclusion  we  reach  is  this — the  ascer- 
tained rate  of  the  supposed  cosmical  rotation 
is  totally  inadequate  to  produce  a  very  con- 
siderable oblateness  of  the  cosmical  sphere. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  indulge  in  extended 
mathematical  calculations,  but  it  will  not  be 
deemed  amiss  to  refer  to  some  of  the  data  to 
be  considered. 

Notice,  first,  the  immensity  of  the  supposed 
cosmical  sphere.  Its  great  circle  is  about  six 
thousand  millions  of  miles  in  diameter. 

How  small  an  angle  does  the  tangent  of 
this  vast  circle  form  with  the  circle  itself.  Yet 
the  centrifugal  force  can  project  the  peripheral 
matter  only  along  the  tangent. 

The  velocity  of  projection  at  each  initial 
point  is  12,000  miles  an  hour.  The  arc  of  the 
circle  passed  over  in  an  hour  is,  as  we  have 
seen,  only  one  eleventh  of  a  second.  It  will, 
therefore,  require  the  equivalent  of  a  projec- 
tion continued  for  one  hour  to  lift  the  surface 
outward  to  the  measure  of  the  tangent  of  an 
arc  of  one  eleventh  of  a  second,  and  this,  too, 


86  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

without  considering  the  effect  of  gravity  on 
the  projected  mass. 

Is  it  too  much  to  ask  of  the  advocates  of 
the  nebular  theory  to  estimate  the  force  of 
gravity  on  the  surface  of  the  hypothetical  cos- 
mical  sphere,  and  the  exact  elevation  that 
could  be  given  to  the  equatorial  region  by  the 
centrifugal  force? 

Is  it  not,  indeed,  their  duty  to  do  this,  and 
thus  demonstrate  the  adequacy  of  the  cen- 
trifugal force  to  produce  the  effects  ascribed 
to  it  by  the  theory  ? 

Do  they  answer,  "  We  have  not  the  exact 
data  necessary  to  an  estimate  ?  We  do  not 
know  the  exact  magnitude  of  the  original  cos- 
mical  mass  at  the  time  of  detaching  the  plan- 
etary mass  ?  We  do  not  know  its  rate  of 
motion  ?  We  do  not  know  the  gravitative 
force  of  the  original  mass  ?  " 

Indeed  !  Do  you  not  know  these  things  ? 
Do  you  assume  every  thing  ?  Is  every  thing 
to  be  taken  for  granted  ?  And  is  that  science  ? 
Well,  whatever  you  may  hereafter  do  in  behalf 
of  the  theory,  will  you  show  us  that  a  rota- 
tion at  the  rate  of  .00025  of  a  degree  per  hour 
is  sufficient  to  produce  even  a  great  degree 


Actual  Velocities.  87 

of  oblateness  in  such  a  body  as  the  original 
cosmical  mass  is  supposed  to  have  been? 
When  you  do  that,  it  will  be  time  to  ex- 
tend the  inquiry  to  the  possibility  of  detaching 
a  peripheral  ring  by  the  same  velocity 

Let  us  dismiss  Neptune  and  glance  at  the 
actual  velocities  of  the  other  planets. 

The  following  table  shows  the  mean  rate  per 
hour  of  the  orbital  motion  of  each  of  the 
planets  named  :  URANUS,  .00049  °f  a  degree  ; 
SATURN,  .0014  of  a  degree  ;  JUPITER,  .0034  of  a 
degree;  MARS,  .021  of  a  degree;  EARTH,  .041 
of  a  degree  ;  VENUS,  .066  of  a  degree  ;  MER- 
CURY, .17  of  a  degree. 

The  sun's  axial  rotation  at  the  rate  of  .6 
of  a  degree  per  hour  produces  no  perceptible 
oblateness.  Suppose  the  sun  to  be  expanded 
to  the  dimensions  of  the  orbit  of  Mercury  and 
to  embrace  that  planet,  meanwhile  dropping 
his  rate  of  axial  rotation  until  it  should  coin- 
cide with  the  orbital  rate  of  Mercury,  (.17  of  a 
degree,)  would  it  then  exhibit  any  perceptible 
oblateness  ? 


88  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DIRECTION  OF  PLANETARY   MOTIONS. 

Laws  of  centrifugal  projection — In  what  direction  must  the 
planet  be  moving? — Where  is  the  plane  of  original  rota- 
tion ? — The  sun's  rotation — Inclination  of  planetary  orbits  to 
the  sun's  equatorial  plane — Comets — Asteroids — Satellites — 
Ratio  of  the  axial  rotation  to  the  orbital. 

IN  the  preceding  chapter  we  considered  the 
actual  velocities  of  the  planetary  system, 
and  we  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
velocities  with  which  the  planets  revolve  in 
their  respective  orbits  are  not  adequate  to 
the  production  of  the  peripheral  rings  con- 
templated by  the  Nebular  Hypothesis,  and 
that,  therefore,  these  velocities  are  not  such  as 
to  account  for  the  origin  of  the  planets  on  the 
principles  of  that  hypothesis. 

But  the  advocates  of  the  hypothesis  also 
allege  that  the  direction  of  the  planetary  mo- 
tions and  of  the  axial  motion  of  the  sun  point 
to  the  same  rational  conclusion,  the  truth  of 
the  nebular  theory.  Thus  says  Winchell : 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.         89 

"Each  has  continued  in  an  orbit  which  marks 
the  periphery  of  the  parent  mass  at  the  time 
of  the  planet's  separation.  All  continue  to  re- 
volve in  the  same  direction  as  the  parent  mass 
and  the  resultant  sun.  All  revolve  in  very 
nearly  the  plane  which  must  always  have  been 
the  plane  of  the  equator  of  the  mass — the  as- 
tronomical ecliptic.  All  continue  to  revolve 
upon  their  own  axes,  in  the  same  direction  as 
required  by  the  motion  of  the  parent  mass. 
Can  all  these  be  so  by  chance  ?  Can  these 
planetary  movements  thus  correspond,  and  the 
material  constitution  of  all  these  bodies  be 
identical,  without  leaving  a  profound  conviction 
upon  our  minds  that  they  have  had  a  common 
origin  and  a  common  history?" 

The  foregoing  illustrates  how  differently  men 
will  reason  from  the  same  premises.  With 
Winchell,  the  alternative  of  admitting  that  the 
planetary  motions  indicate  an  origin  of  worlds 
in  the  development  plan,  is  the  supposition 
that  the  planetary  system  is  a  chance  system. 
But  another  man,  looking  at  the  same  system, 
would  conclude  that  the  happy  adjustments  of 
the  system  simply  indicate  design,  and  the 
direct  and  immediate  agency  of  a  superintend- 


90  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

ing  intelligence ;  and  he  would  no  more  think 
of  a  natural  development  of  worlds  out  of  fire- 
mist  than  he  would  think  of  chance.  In  fact 
he  would  think  of  both  suppositions  as  equally 
irrational. 

But  in  the  inquiry  we  are  now  pursuing  we 
exclude  all  reasoning  of  this  kind.  To  the  re- 
sults we  seek,  it  is  all  one  whether  the  solar 
system  proclaims  the  existence  of  an  infinite 
intelligence — the  Creator  and  upholder  of  all 
things — or  not.  Our  subject  is  a  material 
subject.  The  worlds  are  material  worlds. 
The  only  forces  of  which  we  take  account  are 
the  forces  which  are  known  as  material  forces, 
or  the  forces  which  inhere  in  matter  and  which 
operate  according  to  fixed  laws.  Whether 
these  forces,  and  the  laws  according  to  which 
they  act,  and  the  matter  on  which  they  act, 
each  or  all  are  the  offspring  of  chance  or  the 
offspring  of  intelligence,  is,  therefore,  of  no 
account  in  our  estimation. 

We  take  this  planetary  structure  as  it  is,  we 
consider  its  material  elements,  and  the  laws 
which  are  known  to  govern  them  just  as  they 
are,  and,  by  the  facts  which  we  find  existing, 
we  try  the  Nebular  Hypothesis. 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.         91 

Our  next  examination  will  be  of  the  laws  of 
centrifugal  projection. 

A  mass  of  matter  revolving  on  an  axis 
always  generates  what  is  called  centrifugal 
force.  If  any  portion  of  the  mass  is  free  to 
leave  the  other  portions  of  the  mass,  it  will  be 
thrown  off.  If  all  portions  of  the  mass  are 
equally  free  to  obey  the  impulse  of  the  cen- 
trifugal force,  all  parts  will  move  outwardly 
with  a  force  determined  by  the  relative  situa- 
tion of  the  parts.  But  there  is  one  law  of 
centrifugal  projection  which  is  of  so  great  im- 
portance to  our  inquiry  that  we  wish  to  give  it 
in  form  as  follows :  THE  PROJECTILE  ALWAYS 
MOVES  IN  A  DIRECTION  AT  RIGHT  ANGLES 
WITH  THE  AXIS  OF  ROTATION. 

Now  we  demand  that  when  a  theory  ac- 
counts for  the  formation  of  worlds  by  cen- 
trifugal projection,  the  theory  shall  be  sup- 
ported by  this  law  of  centrifugal  projection. 
Let  us  assume,  with  the  theory,  that  this 
force  did  detach  peripheral  rings,  that  these 
"rings  did  become  planets,  and  that  "  each 
has  continued  to  revolve  in  an  orbit  which 
marks  the  periphery  of  the  parent  mass  at 
the  time  of  planet's  separation,"  then  in  what 


92  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

direction  should  we  expect  to  find  planets  now 
moving? 

Is  not  the  answer  evident  ?  What  is  the 
law  ?  The  direction  of  the  projection  is  at  right 
angles  with  the  axis  of  rotation.  Then  the 
plane  of  a  planet's  orbit  must  be  at  right 
angles  with  the  axis  of  the  cosmical  sphere. 
And  that  is  to  say  that  the  plane  of  the  planet's 
orbit  and  the  plane  of  the  cosmical  equator 
must  be  exactly  coincident.  There  can  be  no 
inclination  of  the  one  plane  to  the  other. 

In  the  nebular  theory  the  only  force  opera- 
ting to  give  the  detached  planet  an  orbital 
motion  is  the  centrifugal  force.  Could  we  find 
other  planetary  bodies  occupying  situations  in 
space  outside  this  plane,  we  should  then  have 
in  gravitation  a  force  by  which  the  planetary 
orbit  might  be  deflected  from  the  plane  of 
original  rotation  ;  but  we  are  obliged  to  ex- 
clude all  such  suppositions.  We  must  keep  in 
mind  that  "All  the  marvelous  uniformities  of 
the  solar  system  are  but  the  progeny  of  that 
primitive  impulse  which  originated  the  grand 
rotation" 

That  there  are  perturbations  in  the  orbital 
movements  of  the  planets  which  can  be  traced 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.          93 

to  their  mutual  attractions,  and  that  some  of 
these  perturbations  are  lateral,  is  known  to  all 
astronomers.  And  so  carefully  has  this  sub- 
ject been  studied  that,  by  the  perturbations 
of  Uranus,  Leverrier  and  Adams,  independent- 
ly, calculated,  the  location  of  the  planet  Nep- 
tune, which,  as  yet,  was  unseen. 

But  has  any  one  estimated  the  disturbing 
force  of  the  attraction  of  one  of  the  fixed  stars 
upon  one  of  the  planets  ?  Will  any  one  aver, 
as  a  fact,  that  such  stellar  attraction  does  so 
affect  the  movements  of  a  planet  as  to  change 
the  plane  of  its  orbit  ?  The  advocates  of  the 
Nebular  Hypothesis  do  not,  so  far  as  we  know, 
make  any  such  claims.  All  planetary  pertur- 
bations, then,  must  arise  from  planetary  at- 
tractions. But  if  the  nebular  theory  be  true, 
there  never  can-  arise  such  a  collocation  of  the 
planetary  masses  as  would  give  rise  to  orbital 
inclinations. 

The  grand  rotation  of  the  original  mass  ele- 
vates the  cosmical  equator.  It  does  not — it 
cannot  elevate  any  other  region  so  much  as 
that.  If  a  ring  could  be  produced  at  all  it 
must  be  exactly  over  the  equator,  and  its  mass 
must  extend  equally  on  both  sides  of  it.  Thus 


94  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

equipoised,  the  attraction  of  the  original  mass 
will  not  disturb  its  equilibrium.  There  is 
no  other  body  whose  attraction  will  sensibly 
affect  it. 

Its  own  momentum,  after  it  is  detached,  will 
carry  it  in  the  direction  given  by  the  projectile 
force.  The  centrifugal  force  projects  it  in  a 
plane  which  is  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  rota- 
tion. Then  it  must  forever  move  in  that  plane, 
unless  some  other  force  lays  hold  of  it  to  turn 
it  aside.  But  where  is  that  plane  ?  No  matter 
where.  If  ever  there  was  an  original  cosmical 
sphere  revolving  axially,  and  giving  birth  to 
planetary  masses  by  the  operation  of  the  cen- 
trifugal force,  then  those  planetary  masses 
must  have  been  projected  in  the  equatorial 
plane  of  that  cosmical  sphere,  and  there  we  are 
authorized  to  look  for  them  to-day. 

All  causation  is  within.  Planetary  history 
is  a  history  of  evolutions. 

Looking  at  the  solar  system  from  this  stand- 
point of  theory,  (the  nebular  theory,)  and  re- 
calling to  mind  the  unchanging  law  of  cen- 
trifugal projection,  we  are  prepared  to  find 
uniformities.  Nay,  we  demand  uniformities. 
Nothing  but  uniformities  will  meet  the  re- 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.         95 

quirements  of  the  theory  and  of  the  law.  We 
are  advertised  that  there  are  marvelous  uniform- 
ities. "  Each  has  continued  to  revolve  in  an 
orbit  which  marks  the  periphery  of  the  parent 
mass  at  the  time  of  the  planet's  separation. 
All  continue  to  revolve  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  parent  mass  and  the  resultant  sun." 
Wonderful  coincidences !  Yet  we  expected 
them.  Knowing  that  a  world  was  projected 
from  the  parent  mass  by  the  centrifugal  force, 
we  'could  not  for  a  moment  dream  that  it 
could  move  in  any  other  direction  than  that  of 
the  parent  sphere.  If  the  axial  rotation  of  the 
cosmical  sphere  was  from  west  to  east,  then 
the  orbital  rotation  of  the  planetary  mass  must 
be  from  west  to  east.  It  will  be  marvelous,  in- 
deed, if  it  be  in  any  other  direction.  And,  if 
it  take  an  axial  rotation  also,  (as  it  probably 
will,)  then  that  axial  rotation  will  also  be  from 
west  to  east.  The  first-born  planet  will  be 
found  moving  in  the  plane  of  the  cosmical 
equator,  and  its  own  equatorial  plane  will  be 
coincident  with  its  orbital  plane.  And  the 
next  planet  will  revolve  in  the  same  plane; 
and  the  next,  and  the  next.  All  planetary 
motion  will  be  in  one  plane.  It  must  be  so 


96  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

upon  the  fundamental  postulates  of  the  Nebular 
Hypothesis.  The  theory  must  abide  by  its  own 
postulates. 

To  assume  that  the  direction  of  the  axial 
rotation  of  the  original  cosmical  sphere  has 
undergone  a  change,  is  to  assume  a  material 
point  contrary  to  the  law.  To  assume  that 
the  orbital  or  axial  rotation  of  a  planet  has  de- 
parted from  its  original  plane,  is  also  to  assume 
a  material  point  contrary  to  the  law. 

If  the  Nebular  Hypothesis  be  dismissed,  and 
we  conceive  of  a  planetary  system  in  which, 
from  the  first,  there  is  axial  motion  in  different 
planes,  and  orbital  motion  in  different  planes, 
then  we  can  see  how  there  may  arise  changes 
of  motion  out  of  which  shall  come  sifch  phe- 
nomena as  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  for 
instance.  But  on  the  principles  of  the  Nebular 
Hypothesis  we  cannot  admit  the  possibility  of 
any  such  phenomena. 

Let  us  now  institute  a  more  detailed  ex- 
amination of  the  solar  system,  with  special 
reference  to  the  direction  of  planetary  motion. 
We  commence  our  examination  at  the  center 
of  the  system,  because,  by  the  terms  of  the 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.         97 

theory  "  the  sun  is  only  the  residual  portion 
of  the  cosmical  mass,  still  maintaining  an  in- 
conceivably high  temperature,  simply  because 
so  vast  a  body  of  matter  has  not  yet  had  time 
to  cool  off." — Winchell. 

We  are  fortunate  in  finding  the  "  residual 
portion  of  the  cosmical  mass ;  "  and  it  is  only 
fair  to  acknowledge  that  we  find — 

1st.  That  it  is  very  hot. 

2d.  That  it  is  very  light — only  a  little  heav- 
ier than  water. 

3d.  That  it  is  still  a  vast  body,  for  its  vol- 
ume is  five  hundred  times  as  great  as  the  com- 
bined volumes  of  all  the  planets,  and  its  mass 
is  seven  hundred  and  forty-five  times  as  great 
as  theirs.  It  is  as  if  a  mass  of  seven  hundred 
and  forty-six  pounds  had  lost  one  pound. 

4th.  That,  huge  as  it  is,  it  is  in  motion  on  its 
axis. 

And  this  last  circumstance  is  what  we  are 
just  now  most  concerned  to  observe.  At  pres- 
ent we  care  nothing  about  the  rate,  but  we 
notice  particularly  the  direction  of  its  motion. 

The  sun  rotates  from  west  to  east.  Not 
exactly  from  west  to  east,  as  we  see  west  and 
east  on  the  earth,  but  in  a  general  sense. 


98  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

Now  this  axial  rotation  of  the  "  residual 
portion,"  we  assume,  must  be  the  original  cos- 
mical  rotation,  at  least  as  to  direction. 

If  it  be  not  the  original  direction  of  the 
grand  rotation  what  has  changed  it  ? 

All  motion  generates  force.  Force  can  only 
be  overcome  by  force. 

Given  the  cosmical  mass  in  motion  in  any 
direction,  we  cannot  conceive  of  a  change  in 
the  direction  of  that  motion  without  the  ex- 
penditure of  adequate  force.  What  force 
could  change  the  direction  of  the  axial  rotation 
of  the  sun  ?  We  have  also  shown  that,  on  the 
principles  of  the  nebular  theory,  there  could 
be  no  change  of  plane  of  a  planet's  orbit. 

The  direction  of  the  rotation  of  the  cosmical 
mass  is  therefore  known.  We  have  only  to 
follow  the  plane  of  the  sun's  equator  out  into 
the  heavens  to  the  distance  of  Neptune  and  we 
will  see  exactly  where  the  "  periphery  of  the 
parent  mass  "  was  "  at  the  time  of  the  planet's 
separation." 

Now  watch  the  progress  of  Neptune.  Does 
it  keep  along  that  plane  ?  No,  it  is  north  of  it. 
But  it  is  approaching  it.  Now  it  is  in  it.  But 
it  crosses  it,  and  goes  on  south  of  it.  But  it 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.         99 

comes  back  again  and  recrosses  it.  And  so, 
period  after  period,  it  crosses  and  recrosses  the 
plane  of  the  cosmical  equator. 

How  was  Neptune  produced  ?  By  the  cen- 
trifugal force?  How,  then,  is  the  plane  of  his 
orbit  inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  cosmical 
equator  nine  degrees? 

We  think  this  must  be  an  illusion,  and  we 
proceed.  We  shall  find  Uranus,  Saturn,  Jupiter, 
and  Mars,  all  revolving  in  the  same  plane, 
the  plane  of  the  cosmical  equator. 

Preposterous !  Reader,  did  you  say  that  ? 
Why  preposterous?  Because  every  body 
knows  that  the  planetary  orbits  are  all  inclined 
to  the  plane  of  the  sun's  equator.  Indeed. 
Then,  in  the  light  of  the  facts  our  expectation 
is  preposterous.  But  by  the  premises  of  the 
nebular  theory  our  expectation  is  only  reasonable. 

What  shall  we  do?  If  we  take  the  facts  we 
must  throw  away  the  theory,  unless  the  facts 
can  in  some  way  be  accounted  for. 

There  are  two  things  we  cannot  do:  we 
cannot  set  aside  the  facts,  and  we  cannot  de- 
stroy the  law  of  centrifugal  projection.  No. 
We  must  admit  the  facts :  we  must  adhere  to 
the  law.  It  is  a  law  of  universal  application. 


ioo  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

The  centrifugal  force  acts  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis  of  rotation.  It  never  acts  otherwise. 
This  law  of  motion  cannot  be  subordinated  to 
a  theory  of  world  formation.  If  the  theory 
cannot  abide  the  test  of  the  law,  so  much  the 
worse  for  the  theory. 

Sometimes  the  advocates  of  the  nebular 
theory  speak  of  the  planetary  masses  as  being 
"  torn  away  "  from  the  cosmical  mass,  and  yet 
none  of  them  really  contemplate  the  act  of 
detaching  as  any  thing  but  an  effect  of  the 
centrifugal  force.  No  outside  force  is  alleged. 
The  centrifugal  force,  which  accumulated  in 
the  peripheral  matter,  alone  has  the  credit  of 
detaching  it.  Therefore  the  detaching  force  is 
the  directive  force,  which  the  planet  must  obey. 

What,  then,  is  the  direction  in  which  each 
of  the  planets  moves  ?  And  how  do  they 
agree  with  the  original  grand  rotation  ? 

The  planetary  orbits  are  all  inclined  to  the 
plane  of  the  sun's  equator,  as  follows : — 

Mercury,  14  degrees;  Venus,  13  degrees; 
Earth,  7^  degrees ;  Mars,  9  degrees  ;  Jupiter, 
8£  degrees;  Saturn,  10  degrees;  Uranus,  8 
degrees  ;  Neptune,  9  degrees. 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.        101 

The  asteroid  also  belong  to  the  solar  system. 
How  many  there  are  of  them  we  know  not. 
It  is  conjectured  that  there  may  be  several 
hundred,  or  even  thousands,  of  them.  They 
are  small  planets.  They  are  revolving  around 
the  sun  in  orbits  of  varying  eccentricity  and 
inclination.  One  of  them — Pallas — revolves  in 
an  orbit  whose  plane  is  inclined  about  forty 
degrees  to  the  plane  of  the  sun's  equator. 

One  other  class  of  objects  demands  our  at- 
tention. The  comets  revolve  around  the  sun, 
and  though  they  are  known  to  be  exceedingly 
light,  aeriform  bodies,  yet  they  must  be  recog- 
nized as  erratic  members  of  the  cosmical  sys- 
tem ;  wandering  fragments  of  the  attenuated 
world  stuff;  and  our  inquiry  is  incomplete  if  it 
do  not  ask,  How  did  they  originate?  How 
were  they  cast  off  from  the  cosmical  sphere  ? 

We  shall  hardly  make  a  separate  theory  for 
these  bodies.  They  belong  to  that  material 
fabric  which  we  are  studying.  They  contain 
the  same  elements,  at  least  in  part.  They 
have  orbital  motions.  They  began  their  career 
under  some  impulse.  What  was  it?  If  the 
solar  system  came  out  of  an  original  cosmical 
condition,  like  that  portrayed  by  the  nebular 


102  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

theory,  then  the  comets  were  once  portions  of 
the  nebular  mass,  and  in  some  way  were  pro- 
jected from  it.  And  we  must  refer  their 
separate  existence  to  the  centrifugal  force. 

Well,  in  what  direction  do  they  move  ?  In 
many  directions.  Some  have  a  direct  motion 
from  west  to  east  in  planes  only  slightly  in- 
clined to  the  ecliptic.  Some  revolve  at  nearly 
right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  and 
others  have  a  retrograde  rotary  motion. 

And  now,  having  taken  this  general  view  of 
the  orbital  motions  of  the  solar  system,  what 
is  our  conclusion  ?  Have  we  found  the 
marvelous  uniformities  ?  Have  we  not  rather 
found  marvelous  variations  ? 

The  advocates  of  the  nebular  theory  are  not 
ignorant  of  these  variations — nay,  we  should 
say  when  referring  them  to  that  theory,  these 
discordances.  How,  then,  do  they  explain 
them  or  account  for  them  ?  They  do  not  ac- 
count for  them.  They  appear  to  regard  them 
as  unimportant  trifles.  They  seem  amazed  at 
the  general  uniformity  of  the  system,  as  if 
uniformities  were  not  to  be  expected  from 
the  premises  of  the  theory.  They  seem  to 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.         103 

be  totally  unimpressed  by  the  exceptional 
motions. 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  only  the  mo- 
tions of  the  primary  planets.  Let  us  now  look 
at  the  orbital  rotation  of  the  satellites.  The 
satellites,  according  to  the  theory,  were  pro- 
jected from  the  planetary  masses  in  the  same 
manner  in  which  the  planets  were  projected 
from  the  original  mass. 

If  they  were  so  projected,  we  are  authorized, 
by  the  law,  to  look  for  them  in  the  planes  of 
their  planets'  equators. 

Taylor,  in  the  discussion  of  "  The  nature  and 
origin  of  force,"  refers  to  the  moon  as  "  an  out- 
lying portion  of  the  earth's  former  equator." 
But  the  moon's  orbit  cuts  the  plane  of  the 
earth's  equator  at  an  angle  of  nearly  twenty- 
nine  degrees.  The  satellites  of  Uranus  and 
Neptune  exhibit  a  startling  exception  to  the 
general  order  of  rotation.  In  these  cases  the 
direction  of  the  rotation  is  reversed,  the  sat- 
ellites moving  from  east  to  west. 

Professor  Winchell  sees  no  difficulty  here, 
however,  and  nothing  incompatible  with  the 
nebular  theory.  He  says,  "  In  fact,  the  plane 
of  the  satellites  is  tilted  up  at  an  angle  which 


iO4  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

exceeds  the  perpendicular  by  about  eleven  de- 
grees ;  thus  the  whole  system  is  nearly  inverted, 
and  the  motion  of  the  satellites,  like  that  of 
the  hands  of  a  watch  lying  face  downward, 
seem  to  be  reversed.  A  moment's  reflection 
will  convince  us,  however,  that  this  is  an 
illusion.  The  motion  is  normal.  The  attitude 
of  the  system  only  is  extraordinary." 

It  only  requires  "  a  moment's  reflection." 
"  In  fact,  the  plane  of  the  satellite  is  tilted 
up."  "  The  attitude  only  is  extraordinary." 
Now,  to  us,  this  seems  the  veriest  trifling. 
Why  is  not  this  tilting  up  accounted  for? 
That  it  is  tilted  up  is  a  circumstance  that  is 
incompatible  with  the  Nebular  Hypothesis. 
What  caused  it?  How  came  the  attitude  to 
be  extraordinary?  The  attitude  only  is  cer- 
tainly a  matter  of  some  moment.  The  Uranian 
system  is  not  contemptible  for  its  magnitude. 
It  would  require  something  of  a  force  to  invert 
that  system. 

One  would  suppose  that  an  event  of  so  much 
importance  in  planetary,  history  should  have  a 
little  more  serious  consideration  than  a  "  mo- 
ment's reflection." 

It  is  a  fact  that  if  the  planets  originated  as 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.         105 

this  theory  claims,  the  plane  of  these  satellites 
has  been  tilted  up.  Then  some  force  must 
have  tilted  it. 

It  is  not  necessarily  the  province  of  the  as- 
tronomer to  account  for  these  exceptional 
motions.  He  has  met  all  his  legitimate  obliga- 
tions when  he  has  fully  described  them.  But 
when  an  astronomer  assumes  the  rdle  of  his- 
torian of  planetary  evolution,  then  it  becomes 
incumbent  on  him  to  account  for  every  excep- 
tion to  that  order  which  his  historical  theory 
requires. 

But  Winchell  alleges  that  the  "  motion  is 
normal,"  yet  what  he  means  by  normal  in  this 
connection  we  are  at  a  loss  to  understand. 
Does  he  mean  simply  that  the  motion  is  ro- 
tary ?  That  the  satellites  revolve  in  orbits  ? 
Or  does  he  mean  that  they  revolve  in  the  same 
direction  in  which  the  parent  planets  perform 
their  axial  rotation  ?  If  so,  does  he  not  as- 
sume the  direction  of  their  rotation  ?  To  our 
mind  that  motion  is  normal  which  is  according 
to  known  laws — laws  of  velocity  and  laws  of 
direction. 

If  a  body  is  put  in  motion  by  the  explosive 
force  of  gunpowder,  and  it  is  made  to  take  the 


io6  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

direction  of  a  certain  object,  we  consider  its 
motion  normal  so  long  as  its  flight  is  such  as 
could  have  been  calculated  for  it  by  one  know- 
ing its  weight  and  its  initial  velocity ;  but  if  it 
go  to  the  right  or  left,  and  no  cause  can  be 
assigned  for  this  change  in  its  direction,  can  we 
say  it  is  normal  ?  But  if  the  flight  of  the  pro- 
jectile be  at  a  right  angle  with  the  line  of  pro- 
jection, or  if  it  should  fly  toward  the  rear,  what 
would  we  say  ?  Who  could  explain  that  ? 

In  ancient  times  the  sling  was  employed  in 
warfare.  But  the  skill  of  the  slinger  consisted 
chiefly  in  two  elements:  the  ability  to  revolve 
the  sling  in  the  perpendicular  plane,  and  the 
tact  to  release  the  projectile  at  the  exact  point 
in  the  circle,  at  which  its  direction  would  be 
toward  its  object. 

The  centrifugal  force  must  do  the  rest. 
Now  suppose  the  plane  of  rotation  to  be  per- 
pendicular, and  yet  the  flight  of  the  projectile 
to  be  greatly  deflected  to  the  right  or  left.  Is 
that  a  normal  motion  ? 

In  the  case  of  Uranus  and  its  satellites  the 
latter  are  affectionately  contemplated  by  the 
nebular  theory  as  the  children  of  the  former. 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.         107 

The  process  of  their  derivation  is  particularly 
described.  "Similarly  the  planetary  masses 
detached  rings  which  became  their  satellites." 
"  But  what  again  of  our  family  of  infant 
planets  ?  Each  sprang  forth,  a  globe  of  igne- 
ous vapor,  like  their  common  mother.  Each 
began  to  repeat  the  process  of  cooling,  con- 
densation, and  accelerated  rotation.  In  the 
cases  of  the  larger,  the  cooling  had  not  reached 
the  point  of  liquefaction  before  the  rotation 
had  become  sufficiently  rapid  to  detach  from 
one  to  seven  rings,  which  in  turn  became  sat- 
ellites revolving  about  their  planets.  The 
larger  planets  have  had  time  to  detach  the 
greater  number  of  rings.  Our  earth  threw  off 
but  one,  and  became  too  rigid  to  repeat  the 
process. 

"  Mars,  Uranus,  and  Mercury — all  smaller 
than  the  earth — attained  the  rigid  condition 
before  their  acquired  velocity  had  separated 
the  periphery.  Their  nights  are  consequently 
unillumined  by  the  presence  of  a  moon." — 
WiNCHELL,  Sketches  of  Creation. 

Notice  in  every  case,  the  manner  of  produc- 
ing a  planet  is  the  same.  The  centrifugal 


io8  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

force  detaches  a  ring  from  the  periphery  of 
the  revolving  cosmical  mass.  The  one  thing 
which  is  essential  to  the  accomplishment  of 
this  work  is  "  sufficient  velocity."  When  de- 
tachment takes  place,  all  that  sufficient  velocity 
attends  the  detached  mass.  It  goes  forward 
in  the  route  determined  for  it  by  the  centrifu- 
gal force.  But  the  satellites  of  Uranus  decline 
to  obey  the  law,  and  turn  back  on  their  course, 
and  making  a  circuit,  so  to  speak,  make  an 
oblique  and  retrograde  path  of  their  own,  with- 
out law  and  without  warrant. 

It  is  not  an  illusion.     It  is  a  fact. 

The  satellites  are  not  revolving  where  they 
must  revolve  if  the  nebular  theory  be  true. 
And  the  fact  is  against  the  theory. 

The  same  fact  is  observable  in  the  satellite 
of  Neptune.  Its  one  satellite  revolves  around 
the  planet  from  east  to  west.  The  first  born 
of  satellites,  like  the  first  born  of  man,  re- 
verses nature's  own  decree,  sets  at  naught 
the  law,  and  sports  itself  in  opposition  to 
authority. 

The  phenomenon  also  remains  unaccounted 
for  by  the  nebular  theory.  Rather,  we  should 
say,  the  fact  stands  against  the  theory  and 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.         109 

cannot  be  reconciled  with  it.    Disappointment 
meets  us  at  every  step. 

We  started  out  to  examine  the  actual  mo- 
tions of  the  solar  system,  assured  that  all 
planetary  motion  was  the  progeny  of  an  orig- 
inal grand  rotation  of  the  cosmical  mass ;  and 
hence  concluding  that  it  would  be  found  obe- 
dient to  the  laws  of  centrifugal  projection. 
We  find  the  planetary  motions  random  mo- 
tions. We  cannot  reconcile  them  with  the 
law.  There  is  not  a  single  instance  of  con- 
formity to  it.  Such  a  thing  as  uniformity  is 
not  to  be  found.  Planets  revolve  in  planes 
that  are  slightly  inclined  to  each  other ;  comets 
dash  through  the  planetary  regions  in  orbits 
whose  planes  are  perpendicular  to  those  of  the 
planets;  asteroids  swing  about  in  many  direc- 
tions, cutting  through  other  planetary  planes 
at  large  angles ;  and  satellites  crown  the  be- 
wildering confusion  with  absolutely  retrograde 
movements.  We  can  come  to  but  one  con- 
clusion. The  origin  of  planetary  motions  is 
not  accounted  for  by  the  nebular  theory. 
There  is  not  a  single  instance  of  orbital  mo- 
tion that  is  what  it  must  be  to  be  in  harmony 
with  the  fundamental  postulates  of  that  theory. 


no          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

We  have  yet  to  consider  the  axial  rotation 
of  the  planets  and  their  satellites. 

The  axial  rotation  of  a  planet,  according  to 
the  theory,  as  we  have  before  seen,  is  the  prod- 
uct of  the  same  impulse  which  gives  it  an  or- 
bital motion.  And  this,  it  has  been  claimed, 
is  at  once  illustrated  and  proven  by  Plateau's 
celebrated  experiment. 

Admitting  the  truth  of  this  theory,  we  sub- 
mit that  it  would  result  that  the  orbital  plane 
of  each  planet  and  satellite  must  coincide  with 
its  equatorial  plane.  Then  the  proposition 
which  we  submitted  early  in  this  chapter  would 
be  verified ;  all  planetary  motion  must  be 
found  in  one  plane.  True,  then,  there  would 
be  no  changes  of  seasons  on  the  planet's  sur- 
face ;  but  what  of  that  ?  The  grand  rotation 
is  not  an  intelligent  designer,  prompted  by  be- 
nevolent considerations  to  shape  a  system  for 
the  benefit  of  any  existences  whatever.  The 
grand  rotation  is  simply  an  inexorable  pro- 
jector of  worlds.  It  can  only  project  them  in 
one  plane.  It  can  go  no  further. 

But  the  planets  do  not  revolve  in  one  plane. 
Every  planetary  orbit  cuts  the  plane  of  the 
sun's  equator  at  some  angle.  The  satellites 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.         1 1 1 

do  not  revolve  in  that  one  plane.  Their  orbits 
not  only  cut  the  plane  of  the  sun's  equator, 
but  they  also  cut  the  planetary  orbits.  So, 
also,  the  axial  motion  disregards  the  law. 
The  equatorial  plane  of  every  planet,  so  far  as 
we  know,  cuts  across  the  orbital  plane.  The 
inclinations,  at  which  they  cross,  vary  greatly, 
but  the  least  of  them  is  too  great  to  harmonize 
with  the  nebular  theory. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  inclination 
of  orbital  plane  to  equatorial  plane :  Mercury, 
70  degrees  ;  Venus,  75  degrees ;  Earth,  23^  de- 
grees; Mars,  28|  degrees;  Jupiter,  3  degrees; 
Saturn,  26f  degrees.  The  inclination  in  the 
cases  of  Uranus  and  of  Neptune  is  unknown. 

Looking  at  these  figures  we  are  constrained 
again  to  ask,  Are  these  the  marvelous  uniform- 
ities that  were  announced  as  observable  in  the 
solar  system?  Are  they  not  unaccountable 
diversities?  What  force  tilted  up  the  axis 
of  each  planet,  so  that  its  axial  rotation  shall 
be  in  another  plane  than  that  of  its  orbit  ? 
How  is  it  that  Venus  has  been  tilted  up  to  the 
extent  of  seventy-five  degrees  ?  True,  Venus 
is  not  a  very  large  planet,  and  yet  it  certainly 
would  require  force  to  put  it  in  motion,  and  an 


ii2  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

equal  force  to  stop  it  when  once  in  motion. 
But  it  must  have  been  moved  seventy-five 
degrees,  and  then  stopped,  for  its  axis  is  fixed 
in  direction,  that  is,  it  is  parallel  to  itself,  at  all 
points  of  the  orbit.  The  same  remarks  will 
apply  to  all  the  planets  whose  axial  inclination 
is  known. 

Another  problem  requires  solution  by  the 
principles  of  the  nebular  theory : —  What  must 
be  the  ratio  of  the  axial  to  the  orbital  rotation 
of  any  given  planet  f 

We  think  it  evident,  that  if  the  centrifugal 
force  projected  a  planet  into  space,  the  orbital 
velocity  of  the  detached  mass,  at  the  moment 
of  detachment,  must  have  been  the  equatorial 
velocity  of  the  mass  from  which  it  was  de- 
tached. Exactly  that :  no  more,  no  less. 

Now  if  we  suppose  the  detached  mass  to  be 
gathered  together  into  a  planetary  sphere 
while  moving  forward  in  the  tangent  of  the 
circle  of  rotation,  we  must  allow  that  it  will 
acquire  an  axial  rotation,  because  its  outer 
portion,  that  is,  that  portion  which  is  farthest 
from  the  axis  of  the  original  rotation,  must 
move  faster  than  that  portion  which  is  nearest 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.         113 

that  axis,  and  so  the  planet  must  turn  upon) 
its  own  center.  And  the  difference  between 
its  exterior  velocity  and  its  interior  velocity 
would  determine  the  rate  of  its  axial  rotation. 
The  more  the  direction  of  the  planet's  flight 
is  deflected  from  the  tangent  toward  the  circle 
the  less  would  be  that  difference ;  and,  there- 
fore, it  would  follow  that  the  more  circular  the 
orbit  of  a  planet  the  less  rapid  ought  to  be  its 
axial  revolution,  if  it  has  arisen  on  this  plan, 
which  is  the  plan  of  the  nebular  theory.  But 
in  any  event  it  will  be  seen  that  a  definite 
ratio  must  have  existed  between  a  planet's 
orbital  motion  and  its  axial  motion.  A  very 
simple  geometrical  figure  would  illustrate  this 
proposition.  Moreover,  the  nebular  theory 
proceeds  on  the  assumption  that  the  same  force^ 
that  is,  the  centrifugal  force,  has  given  to  the 
planets  severally  both  axial  and  orbital  mo- 
tion ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason — because  a  law 
of  development  is  supposed  to  exist — that  a 
history  of  planetary  origin  is  supposed  to  be 
possible.  And  thus,  Winchell  says,  "This 
community  of  conditions,  this  unanimous  obe- 
dience to  one  code  of  physical  laws,  implies 
that  all  these  bodies  are  urged  onward  through 


ii4  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

a  common  history,  and  have  probably  had  their 
starting  point  in  one  common  state  of  matter." 
"Thus  the  present  state  of  the  solar  system  is 
a  living  picture  of  the  entire  history  of  a  sin- 
gle planet." 

We  are  searching  for  that  code  of  physical 
laws.  We  know  something  of  the  laws  of  at- 
traction, of  the  radiation  of  heat,  of  the  veloc- 
ity of  falling  bodies,  of  the  centrifugal  force  ; 
but  here  arises  a  case  in  which  we  think  there 
must  be  a  law  regulating  the  relative  rates  of 
the  two  kinds  of  planetary  motion.  We  do 
unhesitatingly  affirm  that  if  the  planets  have 
been  projected  from  a  revolving  mass,  as  the 
nebular  theory  assumes  that  they  have  been, 
then  there  must  be  a  mathematical  ratio  be- 
tween their  orbital  rotation  and  their  axial 
rotation,  and  any  ordinary  geometrician — as- 
suming the  diameter  of  the  cosmical  sphere  to 
be  a  definite  measure,  and  the  diameter  of  the 
detached  mass  to  be  another  definite  measure, 
and  knowing  the  detaching  velocity — can  cal- 
f  culate  what  the  axial  rotation  must  be.  If  the 
i  orbital  rotation  be  slow,  the  axial  rotation 
must  be  correspondingly  slow.  If  the  orbital 
rotation  be  rapid,  the  axial  rotation  must  be 


Direction  of  Planetary  Motions.         1 1 5 

correspondingly  rapid.  We  have  a  right,  then, 
in  advance,  to  predict  one  thing  respecting 
the  axial  rotations  of  the  planets,  to  wit,  that 
they  will  be  found  to  increase  in  velocity  as 
we  approach  the  sun,  as  we  know  that  their 
orbital  velocity  increases. 

Do  we  find  our  prediction  verified  as  we 
travel  inward  from  Neptune?  The  following 
table  exhibits  the  actual  rates  of  these  two 
kinds  of  rotary  motion  in  all  the  planets  whose 
axial  motion  is  known  : — 

TABLE. 


Rate  of  Orbital  Motion. 

Rate  of  Axial  Motion. 

Saturn  
Jupiter  
Mars  

.0014  degrees. 
.0034       " 
.021          " 
.041 
.066 
.17 

34.5  degrees  per  hour. 
36.         «          "         « 
15.7       " 
15.         "          "         " 

15-3       " 
14. 

Earth  
Venus  
Mercury  

Thus  it  appears  that  there  is  no  common 
ratio  existing  between  these  two  kinds  of  mo- 
tion. The  large,  remote  planets,  Jupiter  and 
Saturn,  with  comparatively  slow  orbital  mo- 
tion have  very  high  rates  of  axial  rotation, 
and  Mercury,  with  the  highest  rate  of  orbital, 


ii6          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

has  the  lowest  rate  of  axial,  rotation.  These 
facts  are  inexplicable.  At  least  they  are 
inexplicable  on  the  principles  of  the  neb- 
ular theory.  If  that  theory  were  true,  these 
things  could  not  be.  The  facts  are  against 
the  theory. 


Densities.  117 


CHAPTER  VII. 

DENSITIES. 

Probable   disposition  of  the  cosmical  matter  on   theoretical 
principles. 

AMONG  the  facts  of  the  solar  system 
which  are  supposed  to  corroborate  the 
nebular  theory,  the  advocates  of  the  theory 
find  this — the  density  of  the  outer  planets  is  less 
than  that  of  those  nearer  the  sun.  Professor 
Winchell  says:  "It  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  the  older  planets  are  composed  of  a 
smaller  proportion  of  the  denser  elements  than 
the  newer  planets,  since  they  are  formed  from 
the  peripheral  portions  of  the  original  fire- 
mist,  while  it  is  likely  the  denser  portions 
gathered  about  the  center,  and  entered,  to  a 
larger  extent,  into  the  constitution  of  later 
rings.  The  lower  specific  gravity  of  the  older 
planets  may  be  partly  attributed  to  this  cause." 

We   think  it   evident,   that  in   a  spherical 
body,  whose  particles  are  free  to  move  among 


n8  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

each  other — situated  as  the  nebular  theory 
supposes  the  cosmical  sphere  to  have  been 
situated — the  matter  of  least  specific  gravity 
must  be  most  remote  from  the  center,  and 
the  matter  of  greatest  specific  gravity  must  be 
gathered  about  the  center.  This  is  exactly 
what  we  see  fluid  matter  of  all  kinds  do, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  on  the  earth. 
Matter  in  a  fluid  state,  when  thrown  together, 
arranges  itself  into  different  strata,  unless 
chemical  combination  take  place  and  prevent 
such  arrangement.  For  the  most  dense  will 
sink  to  the  lowest  place,  and  lift  out  whatever 
lighter  matter  occupied  the  place ;  the  matter 
of  next  greatest  density  will  rest  on  the  denser, 
and  so  on  upward ;  the  less  dense  will  be  sup- 
ported by  the  more  dense,  until,  at  the  top, 
will  be  found  the  least  dense  of  all. 

At  ordinary  temperatures  mercury,  water, 
and  various  oils  afford  familiar  illustrations  of 
this  law.  Thus  mercury  will  settle  through 
water,  and  will  support  it.  Water  will  settle 
through  air,  and  will  support  it.  And  thus 
we  may  conceive  of  the  sublimated  materials 
which  composed  the  original  cosmical  mass, 
obeying  their  resident  gravitative  force,  and 


Densities.  119 

gradually  forming  distinct  strata ;  and  espe- 
cially so,  since  the  elements  existed  hypothet- 
ically  in  a  dissociated  state.  Moreover,  since, 
as  Winchell  truly  intimates,  "  the  states  of 
matter  are  but  the  product  of  temperature 
and  pressure,"  and  since  pressure  is  known  in 
certain  cases  to  counteract  temperature,  we 
may  conceive  of  the  denser  elements,  which  go 
to  the  center,  as  subjected  to  pressure,  which 
would  change  them  from  the  vaporous  to  the 
liquid  condition,  while  the  remote  lighter  el- 
ements still  remained  in  the  gaseous  condition. 
If,  then,  the  cosmical  sphere  be  supposed  to 
have  a  rotary  motion,  we  shall  readily  see  that 
the  lighter  elements  must  be  more  powerfully 
affected  by  that  motion,  because  they  are  near- 
est the  surface  of  the  revolving  sphere.  We 
are  willing  to  adopt  stronger  language  than 
Winchell  employs,  and  say,  //  must  be  so. 

As  the  water  would  rise  through  mercury,  as 
air  would  rise  through  water,  and  as  the  lighter 
hydrogen  gas  would  rise  through  air,  so  it 
would  seem  the  lighter  cosmical  elements  must 
have  risen  to  the  higher,  that  is,  the  outer  re- 
gions ;  and  as  it  was  of  the  peripheral  matter 
that  each  world  was  successively  formed,  the 


120  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

older  planets  must  have  been,  at  the  time  of 
their  formation,  the  lighter  planets,  if  formed 
in  the  manner  set  forth  in  the  nebular  theory. 
Then  the  oldest  planet  must  have  been  formed 
of  the  lightest  matter,  and  its  satellite  must 
have  been  formed  of  the  lightest  of  that  light- 
est matter.  The  next  oldest  planet  must  have 
been  composed  of  the  lightest  of  the  residual 
matter,  and  its  satellites  must  have  been  com- 
posed of  the  lightest  of  that  lightest  residual 
matter,  and  so  on. 

Yes,  we  can  only  agree  with  Winchell  in 
this  position,  unless  we  go  farther  than  he, 
and  add,  there  must  be  a  regular  gradation  of 
densities  in  the  planetary  system.  Theoret- 
ically, no  variation  of  densities  is  admissible, 
except  a  regular  gradation  from  the  least 
dense  in  the  most  remote  to  the  most  dense 
in  the  planet  nearest  the  sun  ;  but  such  a  grada- 
tion seems  to  be  theoretically  necessary  on 
the  premises  assumed  by  the  nebular  theory. 
But  let  us  suppose  that  the  elements  compos- 
ing the  cosmical  mass  were  so  affected  by  the 
inconceivably  high  temperature  that  the  disso- 
ciation was  attended  with  promiscuous  inter- 
mixture, even  to  the  outmost  limits  of  the 


Densities.  12 1 

mass  so  that  the  whole  mass  was  of  uniform 
density,  what  effect  must  follow,  theoretically, 
in  the  condition  of  each  of  the  planetary 
masses?  In  that  case,  as  in  the  other,  we 
must  still  affirm  that  at  the  time  of  separation 
the  planets  must  have  been  of  regularly  graded 
densities.  Moreover,  we  are  happily  able  in 
this  case  to  tell,  with  very  considerable  accu- 
racy, what  the  ratio  of  the  density  of  each 
planetary  mass  must  have  been  to  that  of  the 
next  preceding,  and  to  any,  indeed,  of  the 
whole  number.  For  the  nebular  theory  as- 
sumes that  the  orbits  of  the  planets  mark  the 
limits  of  the  cosmical  sphere  at  the  times  when 
the  respective  planetary  masses  were  detached. 
Grant  this  assumption.  Then  it  follows  that 
whatever  the  density  of  the  cosmical  matter 
was  at  the  time  of  the  separation  of  the  Nep- 
tunian mass,  by  the  contraction  of  the  sphere 
to  the  limit  marked  by  the  orbit  of  Uranus, 
the  volume  of  the  cosmical  sphere  was  shrunken 
to  less  than  one  fourth  its  previous  measure. 
That  sphere,  of  which  the  orbit  of  Neptune  is 
the  equatorial  line,  is  4.8  times  as  large  as  that 
whose  equator  is  measured  by  the  orbit  of 
Uranus.  But  the  contraction  of  volume  is 


122  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

the  condensation  of  the  matter.  If,  then,  the 
elements  be  supposed  to  have  remained  disso- 
ciated and  intermixed,  so  that  the  whole  mass 
was  of  uniform  density  at  the  time  that  the 
Uranian  mass  was  detached,  it  is  evident,  that 
after  allowing  for  the  absence  of  the  Neptu- 
nian mass,  the  matter  of  the  Uranian  system 
was  more  than  four  and  a  half  times  as  dense 
as  that  of  Neptune.  But  after  detaching  the 
Uranian  mass  the  cosmical  sphere  again  con- 
tracted to  limits  marked  by  the  orbit  of 
Saturn,  and  then  the  Saturnian  mass  was  de- 
tached, and  its  matter  was  eight  and  a  half 
times  as  dense  as  that  of  Uranus,  and  thirty- 
eight  times  as  dense  as  that  of  Neptune. 

We  shall  hereafter  have  occasion  to  refer  to 
this  point  again,  in  speaking  of  the  relative 
masses  of  the  planets.  It  is  not  necessary, 
therefore,  to  extend  our  examination  further 
into  details  at  this  stage  of  our  inquiry.  We 
have,  we  think,  made  it  clear  to  every  intelli- 
gent reader,  that  upon  the  assumption  of  uni- 
form density  of  the  cosmical  substance,  and 
the  formation  of  worlds  on  the  plan  of  the 
nebular  theory,  the  second  planetary  mass 
must  have  been  four  and  a  half  times  as  dense 


Densities.  123 

as  the  first,  the  third  eight  and  a  half  times 
as  dense  as  the  second  ;  and  these  three  plan- 
etary masses  were,  in  their  density,  as  i.  4^.  38. 
These  numbers,  it  should  be  remembered,  in- 
dicate the  original  planetary  densities.  Now 
the  present  actual  densities  are  not  supposed 
to  be  like  the  original  densities,  because  the 
same  processes  that  increased  the  density  of 
the  original  cosmical  sphere  are  supposed  to 
have  increased  the  density  of  each  planetary 
mass  also.  Moreover,  on  the  supposition  that 
the  contraction  of  the  mass  was  the  result  of 
the  cooling  of  the  mass,  it  is  evident  that  the 
small  planetary  masses  must  have  contracted 
with  a  rapidity  as  many  times  greater  than 
that  of  the  parent  mass  as  they  were  times 
smaller  than  that. 

Now  the  Neptunian  mass  was  only  *T,|TT  part 
of  the  original  cosmical  mass.  It  would,  there- 
fore, cool  off  twenty  thousand  times  as  fast  as 
the  original  mass,  and  while  the  original  mass 
was  cooling  and  contracting  to  the  limit  at 
which  its  density  was  four  and  a  half  times  as 
great  as  at  first,  the  planetary  mass  would  cool 
off  and  contract  4^x20,000,  or  ninety  thousand 
times  as  much.  So  we  are  authorized  to  say 


124  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

that  at  the  time  of  the  separation  of  the  Ura- 
nian  mass  the  mass  of  Neptune  was  twenty 
thousand  times  as  dense  as  Uranus,  and  nine- 
ty thousand  times  as  dense  as  at  its  own  birth. 

In  like  manner,  after  the  separation  of  the 
Uranian  mass,  three  masses  were  undergoing 
the  same  process  of  cooling  and  contracting 
until  the  Saturnian  mass  was  detached.  The 
Uranian  mass  is  about  a  j.Vtn!'  of  the  residual 
cosmical  mass.  Therefore  it  will  cool  and  con- 
tract twenty-five  thousand  times  as  fast  as  the 
parent  body.  But  the  parent  body  contracts 
so  much  that  its  density  is  eight  and  a  half 
times  as  great  as  it  was  when  Uranus  was  de- 
tached. The  density  of  Uranus  must,  there- 
fore, be  8x25, ooo,  or  two  hundred  thousand 
times  as  great  as  it  was  at  the  time  of  its  de- 
tachment, and  twenty-five  thousand  times  as 
great  as  the  density  of  the  Saturnian  mass. 
And  so,  through  unknown  ages,  the  planetary 
masses  have  been  cooling  off  and  their  density 
increasing. 

Now  this  process  of  cooling  and  contracting 
would  produce  these  proportionate  effects  for 
a  limited  period.  But  the  time  would  come 
in  the  history  of  each  separate  mass  that  it 


Densities.  125 

would  cease  to  shrink  perceptibly,  and  thence- 
forward the  relative  densities  would  not  be 
referable  to  temperature  as  their  cause. 

With  these  preliminary  reflections  we  are 
prepared  to  make  an  examination  of  the  actual 
densities  of  the  planetary  masses. 

It  is  a  fact  that  the  remote  planets  are  less 
dense  than  those  nearer  the  sun.  The  density 
of  Neptune  is  T9g- ;  that  of  Uranus  is  I. 

According  to  the  nebular  theory  Neptune  is 
the  oldest  of  the  planets.  The  period  that 
intervened  between  the  time  of  its  formation 
and  that  of  the  formation  of  Uranus  no  one 
pretends  to  know,  but  it  is  assumed  that  it 
was  an  immense  period.  We  may  be  sure  it 
was  millions  of  ages,  for  in  that  period  the 
cosmical  sphere  contracted  from  a  diameter 
of  six  thousand  millions  of  miles  to  one  of 
three  thousand  five  hundred  millions  of  miles. 
Then  Uranus  was  thrown  off,  and  since  that 
time  they  have  been  cooling  and  contracting 
together.  Now  have  these  two  planets  reached 
that  point  of  congelation  at  which  the  density  is 
not  indicative  of  temperature,  or  have  they  not  ? 

According  to  the  nebular  theory  the  three 
factors — original  density,  original  volume,  and 


126  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

time — are  to  be  considered  as  determining  the 
present  density  of  a  planet.  Of  these  three 
factors  we  know  exactly  nothing.  It  is  the 
practice  of  nebular  theorists,  however,  when 
difficulties  arise,  to  assume  that  they  would 
speedily  disappear  could  we  only  know  the 
truth  about  original  volumes  and  time. 

The  present  densities  of  Neptune  and  Ura- 
nus, as  we  have  seen,  are  T97  and  i.  We  have 
also  seen  that  there  was  a  time,  if  this  theory 
be  admitted,  when  the  density  of  Neptune  was 
twenty  thousand  times  as  great  as  that  of 
Uranus,  and  since  that  time  the  two  bodies 
have  been  cooling  off  and  contracting  together. 
How  is  it,  then,  that  Uranus  has  overtaken 
and  passed  by  Neptune,  so  that  now  the  den- 
sity of  Uranus  is  the  greater  ?  Shall  we  ac- 
count for  it  by  alleging  the  inferior  mass  of 
Uranus?  As  their  masses  are  to  each  other 
as  thirty-three  to  twenty-five,  we  submit,  for 
the  present,  that  the  explanation  has  been 
found. 

In  going  from  Neptune  to  Uranus  we  went 
from  a  less  density  to  a  greater,  and  we  have 
had  an  explanation  of  the  fact.  We  now  pass 


Densities.  127 

on  and  examine  the  density  of  Saturn.  We 
remember  that  the  cosmical  matter  out  of 
which  the  Saturnian  mass  came  was  eight  and 
a  half  times  as  dense  as  that  out  of  which 
Uranus  came.  How  is  it,  then,  that  we  find 
Saturn's  density  only  three  fourths  as  great  as 
that  of  Uranus  ?  The  answer  is  ready  :  Saturn 
is  a  younger  and  a  larger  body  than  Uranus, 
so  that,  though  her  original  density  was  eight 
and  a  half  times  as  great  as  that  of  Uranus, 
yet  at  the  time  of  Saturn's  birth  Uranus  had 
already  attained  considerable  age,  so  great, 
indeed,  that  during  the  existence  of  Uranus 
the  cosmical  mass  had  acquired  a  density  eight 
and  a  half  times  that  with  which  Uranus 
started  out.  But  during  all  that  time  Uranus 
was  outstripping  the  parent  mass  in  the  race 
of  condensation,  because,  being  only  -5-5^-5-5  as 
large  as  the  parent  mass,  Uranus  had  con- 
densed twenty-five  thousand  times  as  fast ; 
and  so,  when  Saturn  sets  out -on  his  separate 
career,  Uranus  has  already  attained  a  density 
twenty-five  thousand  times  as  great  as  Saturn's. 
Of  course,  then,  we  must  not  expect  Saturn 
to  overtake  Uranus  in  the  process  of  conden- 
sation. Why  not?  For  two  reasons:  i.  Be- 


128  THE  MODERN  GENESIS.  • 

cause  Uranus  has  so  much  the  start.  2.  Be- 
cause Uranus,  being  so  much  smaller  than 
Saturn,  will  continue  to  condense  more  rapidly 
than  Saturn,  and  thus  widen  the  distance  be- 
tween them.  The  mass  of  Saturn  is  more 
than  seven  times  as  great  as  that  of  Uranus. 
Uranus,  therefore,  will  continue  to  cool  off  and 
condense  seven  times  as  fast  as  Saturn.  Be- 
hold the  result.  Uranus,  at  the  outset  of  Sat- 
urnian  history,  twenty-five  thousand  times  as 
dense  as  Saturn,  goes  on  through  all  the  cor- 
responding periods  of  planetary  history  seven 
times  as  rapidly  as  Saturn.  We  must  change 
the  form  of  our  question  and  ask,  How  is  it 
that  Saturn  is  so  heavy  ?  How  is  it  that  the 
density  of  Saturn  is  so  great  ?  Unless  we  con- 
clude that  Uranus  has  long  since  reached  an 
unchanging  density,  Saturn  has  a  relative  den- 
sity many  thousand  times  too  great. 

If  we  assume  that  Uranus  and  Neptune  have 
both  reached  a  condition  of  unchanging  density, 
then  their  relative  density  ought  to  be  as  one 
to  four,  Neptune  being  one.  But  Neptune  is 
nine  tenths.  Uranus  is  one. 

Difficulties  thicken,  but  let  us  go  forward. 
Let  us  compare  Saturn -and  Jupiter.  The 


Densities.  1 29 

residual  cosmical  mass,  after  allowing  the 
removal  of  all  the  matter  of  Saturn,  was 
about  three  thousand  five  hundred  times  as 
great  as  the  Saturnian  mass.  It  had  con- 
tracted to  the  limit  marked  by  the  orbit  of 
Jupiter,  and  in  so  contracting  its  density  was 
multiplied  by  six  and  a  half.  The  matter  of 
which  Jupiter  was  constituted  was,  therefore, 
six  and  a  half  times  as  dense  as  the  original 
matter  of  Saturn.  But  we  must  not  forget 
that  while  the  great  parent  mass  was  thus  be- 
coming six  and  a  half  times  as  dense,  Saturn, 
which  was  only  g-jW  the  mass  of  the  cosmical 
parent,  was  increasing  in  density  three  thou- 
sand five  hundred  times  as  fast  as  the  parent 
mass.  At  the  very  moment,  therefore,  that 
the  Jovian  mass  was  detached,  the  density  of 
the  Saturnian  matter  was  three  thousand  five 
hundred  times  as  great  as  the  Jovian. 

Now  how  will  their  contemporary  history  af- 
fect their  relative  densities  ?  The  mass  of  Jupi- 
ter is  three  hundred  and  one,  while  that  of  Sat- 
urn is  ninety.  Jupiter  is,  therefore,  more  than 
three  times  as  large  as  Saturn.  Then  Saturn 
will  contract  and  condense  more  than  three 

times  as  fast  as  Jupiter.     Will  Jupiter  ever 
9 


130  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

overtake  Saturn?  Never  until  Saturn  shall 
reach  the  point  at  which  density  undergoes 
little,  if  any,  change.  But  Jupiter  is  already 
twice  as  dense  as  Saturn. 

We  found  Saturn,  when  compared  with 
Uranus,  much  too  dense  for  the  theory.  We 
now  find  Saturn  too  light.  We  ask  Professor 
Winchell  to  account  for  these  discrepancies. 
Compare  which  planet  we  will  with  Saturn  on 
the  premises  of  the  nebular  theory,  we  are 
mocked  by  the  results. 

In  pursuing  this  line  of  inquiry  we  have  fol- 
lowed exactly  the  line  pursued  by  Winchell  in 
comparing  the  earth  and  the  moon.  The  fol- 
lowing is  almost  a  quotation  :  "  Saturn  is  only 
one  third  as  large  as  Jupiter,  and,  therefore,  it 
will  cool  off  three  times  as  fast.  Its  historic 
periods  will  be  correspondingly  shorter.  And 
it  will  pass  through  its  various  stages  of  refrig- 
eration so  much  more  rapidly." 

There  is  no  regular  gradation  of  densities. 
There  is  no  indication  that  there  ever  was  such 
a  gradation.  The  densities  of  the  larger  plan- 
ets are  inexplicable  on  the  principles  of  the 
nebular  theory.  And  it  is  immaterial  which 


Densities.  131 

supposition  we  shall  make — that  the  lighter 
cosmical  matter  was  the  peripheral  matter,  or 
that  the  cosmical  matter  was  of  uniform  den- 
sity— in  either  case  we  ought  to  find  a  regular 
gradation  of  densities  in  the  planetary  system, 
but  we  do  not  find  it. 

Saturn  is  especially  inexplicable.  Associ- 
ated with  his  elder  brother,  Uranus,  in  com- 
parison he  puts  on  an  extravagant  amount  of 
gravity,  a  gravity  utterly  unbecoming  his  com- 
parative youth.  Associated  with  his  younger 
brother,  Jupiter,  he  is  guilty  of  equally  extrav- 
agant levity,  utterly  unbecoming  to  his  ad- 
vanced age.  Young  or  old,  Saturn  fails  to 
render  support  to  the  Nebular  Hypothesis. 


132          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

DENSITIES  —  CONTINUED. 

Existence  of  the  same  elements  in  different  planets — In  the 
sun — In  the  stars. 

WE  have  assumed  the  existence  of  bodies 
of  matter  in  gaseous  condition  in  the 
heavens.  We  now  further  assume  that  these 
gaseous  bodies  are  composed  of  elements  that 
constitute  the  earth.  We  also  suppose  that 
these  same  elements  are  present  in  the  sun 
and  in  the  remotest  fixed  stars.  These  suppo- 
sitions are  not  new ;  nor  are  they  of  special 
value  to  any  cosmical  theory.  And  yet  the 
advocates  of  the  nebular  theory  have  recently 
experienced  wonderful  ecstasies  from  the  fact 
that  the  spectroscope  had  assured  us,  to  some 
extent,  of  the  truth  of  this  old  supposition, 
and  the  existence,  in  the  different  planets,  of 
the  same  elements  has  been  mentioned  as  a 
ground  of  belief  in  the  nebular  theory.  But 
does  the  admitted  fact  give  support  to  the 
theory?  Who  has  ever  raised  a  question  that 


Densities —  Continued.  133 

the  sun  and  planets  were  material  bodies? 
Who  has  denied  that  the  stars  were  material 
bodies  ?  Who  has  denied  the  materiality  of 
the  nebula  ? 

But  does  the  fact  of  materiality  prove  "  a 
common  origin "  of  all  these  bodies  in  the 
sense  in  which  those  words  are  used  in  the 
nebular  theory?  Admitting  that  there  are 
real  nebula  in  the  heavens — bodies  of  self-lu- 
minous vapor — does  it  follow  that  all  planetary 
bodies  were  once  masses  of  vapor?  Suppos- 
ing the  original  condition  of  each  of  the  plan- 
etary bodies  to  have  been  igneous,  does  it  fol- 
low that  it  must  have  been  gaseous  ?  But 
even  if  it  did  follow  that  the  original  condition 
was  gaseous,  would  it  follow  that  each  body 
had  been  separated  from  the  others  by  such  a 
process  of  mechanical  evolution  as  this  nebular 
theory  proposes?  If  the  sun  is  composed  of 
the  same  elements  as  the  earth,  does  it  follow 
that  the  earth  has  been  derived  from  the  sun  ? 
If  all  the  planets  be  found  to  contain  the 
same  kind  of  matter  that  the  sun  contains, 
must  we,  therefore,  conclude  that  all  the  plan- 
ets were  at  the  same  period  embraced  in  the 
sun  ?  Then  we  must  go  further.  Identity  of 


134  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

material  elements  existing  in  any  two  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  proves  a  common  origin,  and  at 
some  time  residence  in  one  common  mass.  We 
must,  then,  carry  our  generalization  to  the 
common  origin  of  all  the  stellar  bodies.  True, 
some  of  them  may  be  so  far  distant  from  us 
that  we  cannot  absolutely  determine  their  ma- 
terial constituents;  yet,  wherever  we  have 
been  able  to  bring  a  star  under  the  inquisition 
of  the  spectrum  analysis  it  has  given  an  an- 
swer touching  its  constituent  elements;  and 
we  may  be  justified  in  assuming  that  the  same 
elements  that  constitute  the  earth  are  present 
in  every  star  as  well  as  in  the  sun. 

Then  there  must  have  been  a  time  when 
the  whole  material  universe,  embracing  the 
countless  millions  of  stars,  all  the  thousands 
of  nebula,  all  the  comets,  and  all  the  planets, 
were  in  the  condition  of  igneous  gas,  filling  all 
that  inconceivably  vast  sphere  within  which 
the  fixed  stars  are  situated.  Then  there  were 
,  no  stars  and  no  interstellar  spaces.  All  was 
one  vast  furnace  of  inconceivably  high  temper- 
ature. The  volume  of  the  original  cosmical 
mass,  which  is  now  formed  into  our  solar  sys- 
tem, must  have  been  so  much  greater  then 


Densities — Continued.  135 

than  it  was  at  the  birth  of  Neptune,  that  a 
thousand  cubic  miles  of  it  would  not  equal  a 
grain  in  weight.  Yes,  accepting  the  nebular 
theory  and  its  method  of  reasoning,  we  are 
conducted  to  this  conclusion.  The  cosmical 
matter  existed  in  an  unbroken  mass,  as  exten- 
sive as  the  universe.  Look  at  the  argument. 
The  planets  are  composed  of  the  same  el- 
ements that  compose  the  sun.  Then  they 
must  have  had  a  common  origin.  The  sun 
contains  the  same  elements  which  are  con- 
tained by  the  stars.  Then  they  must  have 
had  a  common  origin. 

We  might  affirm  that  this  sameness  of  con- 
stituent elements  indicates  a  common  origin 
in  the  fiat  of  one  infinite  Mind.  We  might 
infer  the  existence  of  a  general  plan  in  the 
adjustments  of  stellar  relations.  We  might 
reach  the  conclusion  that  the  general  likeness 
of  material  features,  so  far  as  known,  justifies 
the  conclusion  that  an  intelligent  purpose  was 
at  the  bottom,  and  an  intelligent,  constant 
supervision  is  exercised  over  the  whole  mate- 
rial universe  by  one  Supreme  Will.  We  might 
add  that  we  know  not  what  office  the  nebula 


136  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

have  in  the  economy  of  nature,  that  if  the  uni- 
verse be  the  work  of  Infinite  Wisdom  they 
have  some  office,  and  that  if  it  be  not,  then 
nothing  has  any  office,  and  all  efforts  to  find  a 
system  of  nature  are  idle. 

But  we  will  not  urge  such  possible  reflec- 
tions. We  repeat,  as  we  have  observed  be- 
fore, we  are  engaged  in  a  strictly  material 
study.  We  assume  that  there  is  a  material 
unity  in  the  universe.  Whether  any  God  ex- 
ists or  not,  there  is  material  unity,  and  we  will 
not  be  diverted  from  our  pursuit  by  any  fear 
that  our  discoveries  may  possibly  be  inimical 
to  religion.  We  have  the  proofs  that  worlds 
are  bound  together  by  gravitation  in  a  great 
system.  We  have  in  light,  which  issues  from 
a  star  so  remote  that  it  is  years  reaching  us, 
the  same  actinic,  the  same  illuminating,  and 
the  same  thermal  action  that  belongs  to  the 
light  of  our  own  sun,  and  we  find  it  obedient 
to  exactly  the  same  laws  of  refraction  and 
reflection. 

.  Whatever  else  men  may  differ  about,  this 
would  seem  beyond  dispute,  all  celestial  and 
terrestrial  bodies  constitute  one  grand  material 
unity.  The  material  relations  are  intimate. 


Densities —  Continued.  \  3  7 

All  material  things  are  constantly  acting  upon 
each  other. 

But  does  it  follow  that  all  these  bodies  once 
slumbered  in  the  bosom  of  a  universal  nebular 
mass?  Does  it  follow  that  they  have  been 
mechanically  evolved?  Does  it  give  prob- 
ability to  the  suspicion  of  an  original  grand 
rotation  of  the  whole  universe  as  a  gaseous 
mass,  by  which  all  existing  stars  and  nebulae 
became  separated  from  each  other?  Does  it 
follow  that  our  solar  system  has  thus  separately 
been  evolved?  Not  at  all.  Not  one  of  all 
these  facts  of  nature  hints  at  any  such  thing. 

But  if  we  should  concede  the  existence  of 
the  universe  originally  in  such  gaseous  state, 
have  we  gained  any  thing  for  science  ?  Noth- 
ing at  all.  It  cannot  possibly  be  lifted  above 
the  level  of  absolutely  groundless  speculation. 

It  is  not  history.  When  referred  to  it,  the 
title  "  Planetary  History  "  is  a  misnomer.  Sup- 
pose we  drift  with  this  theory  thus  far,  is  it  at 
all  satisfactory  ?  Whence  the  star  dust  ?  We 
want  a  history  of  the  cosmical  matter.  Carry 
us  to  the  beginning.  Let  us  reach  the  source 
of  the  historic  stream. 


138  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

But,  really,  this  nebular  theory  is  not  a  plan- 
etary history.  It  is  not  a  history  of  matter. 
It  is  destitute  of  all  the  elements  of  history. 
It  is  a  congeries  of  stupendous  assumptions, 
and  it  disregards  at  every  step  the  simplest, 
plainest,  and  most  thoroughly  established  facts 
and  laws  of  material  nature.  Who  can  tell 
whether  the  primitive  state  of  matter  was  gas- 
eous or  not  ?  Is  it  not  as  easy  to  account  for 
terrestrial  changes  on  other  suppositions  as 
on  that  ?  But  for  the  purpose  of  giving  coun- 
tenance to  the  theory  of  ring  formations  it 
would  probably  never  have  been  mentioned. 
For  the  nebular  theory  the  gaseous  condition 
is  necessary.  There  must  be  a  gaseous  con- 
dition of  the  cosmical  matter,  according  to  one 
form  of  the  theory,  so  as  to  allow  of  condensa 
tion  by  the  force  of  gravity,  and  the  condensa 
tion  by  this  force  is  supposed  to  have  evolved 
the  inconceivable  heat. 

Thus  says  HELMHOLTZ;  "When  the  nebu- 
lous chaos  first  separated  itself  from  other  fixed- 
star  masses,  it  must  not  only  have  contained 
all  kinds  of  matter  which  was  to  constitute 
the  future  planetary  system,  but  also,  in  ac- 
cordance with  our  new  law,  (Helmholtz  here 


Densities — Continued.  139 

refers  to  the  "  Principle  of  the  conservation 
of  force,")  "  the  whole  store  of  force  which  at 
one  time  must  unfold  therein  its  wealth  of  ac- 
tion. Indeed,  in  this  respect  an  immense  dower 
was  bestowed,  in  the  shape  of  the  general  attrac- 
tion of  all  the  particles  for  each  other.  This 
force,  which  on  the  earth  exerts  itself  as  grav- 
ity, acts  in  the  heavenly  space  as  gravitation. 
As  terrestrial  gravity,  when  it  draws  a  weight 
downward,  performs  work  and  generates  vis 
viva,  so  also  the  heavenly  bodies  do  the  same 
thing  when  they  draw  two  portions  of  matter 
from  distant  regions  of  space  toward  each 
other.  The  chemical  forces  must  also  have 
been  present,  ready  to  act ;  but  as  these  can 
only  come  into  operation  by  the  most  intimate 
contact  of  the  different  masses,  condensation 
must  have  taken  place  before  the  play  of  chem- 
ical forces  began. 

"  Whether  a  still  further  supply  of  force,  in 
the  shape  of  heat,  was  present  at  the  com- 
mencement, we  do  not  know.  At  all  events, 
by  the  law  of  the  equivalence  of  heat  and 
work  W6  find  in  the  mechanical  forces,  exist- 
ing at  the  time  to  which  we  refer,  such  a  rich 
source  of  heat  and  light,  that  there  is  no 


140  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

necessity  whatever  to  take  refuge  in  the  idea 
of  a  store  of  these  forces  originally  existing. 

"When,  through  condensation  of  the  masses, 
their  particles  came  into  collision  and  clung 
to  each  other,  the  vis  viva  of  their  motion 
would  be  thereby  annihilated,  and  must  ap- 
pear as  heat. 

"  Already,  in  old  theories,  it  has  been  calcu- 
lated that  cosmical  masses  must  generate  heat 
by  their  collision,  but  it  was  far  from  any 
body's  thought  to  make  even  a  guess  at  the 
amount  of  heat  to  be  generated  in  this  way. 
At  present  we  can  give  definite  numerical  val- 
ues with  certainty." 

After  stating  the  problem  and  the  method 
of  solution,  Helmholtz  continues  :  "  The  result 
of  this  calculation  is,  that  only  about  the  four 
hundred  and  fifty-fourth  part  of  the  original 
mechanical  force  remains  as  such,  and  that  the 
remainder,  converted  into  heat,  would  be  suf- 
ficient to  raise  "a  mass  of  water  equal  to  the 
sun  and  planets  taken  together,  not  less  than 
twenty-eight  millions  of  degrees  of  the  centi- 
grade scale." 

TYNDALL  only  expresses'the  same  meaning 
in  another  form  of  words  when  he  says  :  "  The 


Densities —  Continued.  1 4 1 

potential  energy  of  gravitation  was  the  orig- 
inal form  of  all  the  energy  in  the  universe." 

We  see,  in  the  light  of  these  quotations, 
how  necessary  to  this  form  of  the  nebular 
theory  the  assumption  of  the  original  gaseity 
of  matter  is.  If  the  cosmical  matter  was  of 
very  great  tenuity — so  great,  indeed,  that 
chemical  forces  could  have  no  play — then 
there  could  be  condensation ;  and,  through 
condensation,  vis  viva  or  living  force,  or  me- 
chanical force ;  and,  through  the  expenditure 
of  the  vis  viva,  heat ;  enough  heat,  indeed,  to 
raise  a  body  of  water  equal  to  the  mass  of  all 
the  bodies  in  the  solar  system  to  a  temper- 
ature of  twenty-eight  million  degrees  centi- 
grade. Two  things  the  great  philosopher  of 
Bonn  did  not  explain.  He  did  not  explain 
how  matter  could  reach  such  tenuity  without 
heat,  and  he  did  not  explain  what  effect  the 
developed  heat  would  have  on  the  density  of 
the  matter. 

He  also  speaks  of  the  "  nebular  chaos,"  as 

separating   itself  from   the  other  fixed-star 

masses,"  but  leaves  us  entirely  in  the  dark  as 

to  the  mode  of  the  separation.     Certainly,  if  it 

is  the  behoof  of  science  to  show  how  planets 


142  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

were  separated  from  the  "  nebular  chaos"  it 
must  be  equally  its  behoof  to  show  how  the 
"  nebular  chaos "  was  separated  from  "  the 
other  fixed-star  masses." 

That  form  of  the  nebular  theory  advocated 
by  WINCHELL,  STERRY  HUNT,  and  others, 
also  assumes  the  existence  of  matter  originally 
in  the  condition  of  a  gas  of  great  tenuity,  but 
in  this  case  the  gaseity  is  the  result  of  incon- 
ceivably high  heat.  To  this  we  shall  have  oc- 
casion to  refer  hereafter,  and  only  mention  it 
now  to  show  that  the  gaseous  condition  of  the 
cosmical  matter  is  alike  necessary  to  both 
forms  of  the  nebular  theory ;  and  also  to  re- 
mark that  grave  difficulties  invest  that  form  of 
the  theory  enunciated  by  Helmholtz  which  are 
avoided  by  Winchell,  and  it  is  therefore  that 
we  devote  our  attention  chiefly  to  the  theory 
as  set  forth  by  the  latter  as  the  more  plausible 
theory. 


Planetary  History.  143 


CHAPTER  IX. 

PLANETARY    HISTORY. 

A  magnificent  picture — Progressive  changes  in  structure — 
Discussion — Structure  of  the  earth — The  interior  fires — Hop- 
kins's  theory— The  lunar  stage — Sir  Charles  Lyell— Experi- 
ments of  Mr.  Daniels  with  molten  metals. 

THE  nebular  theory,  as  a  history  of  matter, 
follows  the  planetary  masses  into  their 
separate  and  individual  history.  Cast  off  from 
the  cosmical  mass  while  yet  inconceivably  hot, 
they  were  self-luminous  gaseous  bodies.  They 
could  not  at  first  be  regarded  as  analogous  to 
our  sun.  They  would  have  to  pass  through  a 
number  of  stages  before  they  would  reach  the 
solar  stage.  But  they  contracted,  and  their 
axial  rotation  was  accelerated  and  the  satellite 
masses  thrown  off,  as  the  planetary  masses  had 
been  thrown  off  before.  Thus  the  celestial 
fires  were  multiplied.  Cosmical  original,  pri- 
mary planetary  masses,  and  secondary  planet- 
ary masses  were  glowing  with  their  own  na- 
tive heat  together  in  the  firmament. 


144  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

But  they  came  in  time  to  be  suns.  Then 
they  expired  as  suns,  and  the  Saturnian  stage 
came  on.  Just  where,  in  the  history,  the  tem- 
perature became  such  as  to  allow  of  chemical 
combinations,  we  are  not  informed.  Perhaps 
this  information  is  denied  us  for  the  purpose 
of  leaving  room  for  a  healthful  play  of  the 
imagination. 

It  is,  however,  assumed  «that  chemical  com- 
bination began  at  the  surface,  because  it  was 
here  that  the  cooling  was  most  rapid.  Cer- 
tainly we  can  imagine  that  it  must  have  been 
very  cold  at  the  surface,  or  just  outside  of  it. 
When  chemical  action  began,  and  compounds 
were  formed  at  the  surface  or  in  the  higher  re- 
gions, the  compounds  began  immediately  to 
fall  toward  the  center  of  the  mass.  But  they 
could  not  go  far  before  they  would  meet  a 
heat  of  dissociation,  and  their  course  would  be 
arrested.  More  and  more  rapidly  this  process 
went  on,  and  the  cooling  and  contracting  were 
accelerated.  In  process  of  time  the  cooling 
was  carried  to  that  extent  that  the  elements, 
which  were  freely  intermixed,  sought  chemical 
association,  and  combination  generally  took 
place  throughout  the  mass. 


Planetary  History.  145 

Says  Dr.  Hunt :  "  So  long  as  the  gaseous 
condition  of  the  earth  lasted  we  may  suppose 
the  whole  mass  to  have  been  homogeneous  ; 
but  when  the  temperature  became  so  reduced 
that  the  existence  of  chemical  compounds  at 
the  center  became  possible,  those  which  were 
most  stable  at  the  elevated  temperature  then, 
prevailing  would  be  first  formed.  Thus,  for 
example,  while  the  compounds  of  oxygen  with 
mercury,  or  even  with  hydrogen,  could  not 
exist,  oxides  of  silicon,  aluminum,  calcium, 
magnesium,  and  iron  might  be  formed  and 
condensed  in  a  liquid  form  at  the  center  of 
the  globe.  By  progressive  cooling,  still  other 
elements  would  be  removed  from  the  gaseous 
mass  which  would  form  the  atmosphere  of 
the  non-gaseous  nucleus." — Chemistry  of  the 
Earth. 

Having  an  atmosphere  thus  theoretically 
provided  for,  an  atmosphere  of  uncombined 
gases,  and  a  central  liquid  nucleus,  we  are  nat- 
urally led  to  the  contemplation  of  the  chem- 
ical combination  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  and 
the  beginning  of  a  period  of  aqueous  conflict 
with  the  interior  heat.  Winchell  anticipates 
us  here,  as  follows :  "  During  a  cosmic  period 
10 


146  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

the  clouds  accumulate,  slowly  shutting  out 
the  light  of  the  sun,  and  copiously  discharg- 
ing their  rains  toward  the  planet.  The  rains, 
penetrating  the  lower  strata  of  the  atmos- 
phere, are  converted  to  vapor,  and  returned 
to  the  clouds,  to  be  again  condensed  and  pre- 
cipitated. Every  ascending  particle  of  vapor 
carries  off  a  portion  of  heat  from  the  atmos- 
phere, and  promotes  the  cooling  of  the  planet. 
But  cosmic  changes  are  slow,  and  ages  must 
elapse  while  a  tempest  rages  in  mid  air,  which 
is  quite  unfelt  upon  the  surface  of  the  planet, 
save  as  the  vivid  lightnings  shed  a  violet  gleam 
over  the  arid  surface,  or  the  rolling  thunders 
mark  the  time  of  the  tempest's  march.  Grad- 
ually the  line  of  conflict  settles  toward  the 
heated  crust.  At  length  the  rain  strikes  the 
crust.  Then,  after  a  period  of  increased  ex- 
citement in  the  elements,  a  universal  ocean 
begins  to  accumulate — a  boiling,  steaming, 
turbid  ocean.  After  a  further  lapse  of  ages 
the  cooling  and  accumulating  waters  lead  to 
signs  of  exhaustion  in  the  clouds.  Light  fil- 
ters feebly  through,  and  the  lowest  organisms 
appear  in  the  sea.  Then  the  clouds  break, 
and  the  full  sunlight  and  peaceful  elements 


Planetary  History.  147 

are  the  signal  for  advancing  grades  of  organ- 
ization." 

This  is  history.  That  primitive  impulse 
which  originated  the  grand  rotation  has  devel 
oped  multiform  energies,  and  that  cosmical 
matter,  whose  tenuity  was  so  great  that  several 
cubic  miles  would  weigh  less  than  a  single 
grain,  lies  before  us  in  massive  rocks,  underly- 
ing a  universal  ocean,  surrounded  by  an  at- 
mosphere fitted  to  sustain  some  forms  of 
organization.  , 

Let  us  follow  over  this  historical  track,  and 
try  its  credibility. 

First  of  all  we  ask,  What  authority  have  we 
in  experimental  science  for  the  assumption  that 
an  inconceivably  high  temperature  could  be 
maintained  in  a  cosmical  mass  of  dissociated 
elements  ? 

What  is  temperature  ?  Heat  is  simply  ther- 
mal activity  or  a  form  of  motion,  which  exhib- 
its effects  which  are  known  as  thermal.  Tem- 
perature is  the  degree  of  that  activity.  Now 
we  have  no  means  of  knowing  what  is  the  nor- 
mal thermal  state.  But  we  know  that  there 
are  certain  laws  of  thermal  evolution.  We 


148  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

know  that  certain  substances,  when  brought 
into  contact  at  certain  temperatures,  will  im- 
mediately rush  into  chemical  combination. 
We  know  that  the  chemical  combination,  when 
it  is  effected,  occasions  the  exhibition  of  heat. 
But  at  other  temperatures  we  know  that  the 
same  elements  might  remain  imtermixed  for 
long  periods  of  time  without  combining,  and 
that  so  long  as  they  thus  remained  no  heat 
will  result  from  their  intermixture.  We  know, 
also,  that  these  same  elements  might  be  put 
into  motion  and  brought  suddenly  into  col- 
lision while  moving  in  opposite  directions,  and 
that  their  mass  motion  would  be  converted 
into  that  molecular  motion  which  we  call  heat. 
But  we  do  not  know  that  the  elements  can 
all  exist  in  a  vaporous  or  gaseous  condition 
without  heat.  And  we  do  not  know  of  any 
mode  of  producing  such  a  heat  as  could  effect 
so  complete  a  sublimation  of  the  elements  as 
the  nebular  theory  supposes  to  have  existed. 
If  these  elements  were  put  into  the  gaseous 
state  by  heat  and  intermixed,  we  may  con- 
ceive of  their  remaining  together  in  that  state 
so  long  as  the  heat  is  maintained,  but  the  heat 
must,  in  some  way,  be  generated. 


Planetary  History.  149 

But  in  the  hypothetical  cosmical  mass  there 
is  no  generation  of  heat.  No  rational  account 
of  its  origin  is  given.  There  is  no  chemical 
combination.  It  is  too  hot  for  that.  There- 
fore chemical  combination  cannot  account  for 
the  heat.  It  is  not  the  contraction  of  the  cos- 
mical mass,  for  the  contraction  is  the  result  of 
cooling.  Whence  the  inconceivable  heat  of 
the  original  cosmical  mass  ?  What  kind  of 
activity  could  exist  among  elements  chem- 
ically dissociated,  and  incapable  of  chemical 
combination,  the  manifestation  of  which  would 
be  a  continued  thermal  state  of  inconceivably 
high  temperature? 

We  have  sought  in  the  writings  of  the  ad- 
vocates of  the  nebular  theory  for  some  rational 
answer  to  these  questions,  and  we  have  sought 
in  vain.  We  have  read  with  special  interest 
"  The  Chemistry  of  the  Earth."  Surely, 
we  said,  we  shall  find  a  clew  to  the  origin  of 
the  nebular  temperature.  So  distinguished  a 
physicist  as  Dr.  Sterry  Hunt  will  not  pass 
this  point  unnoticed.  But  he  does.  He  says: 
'  The  nebulous  matter  is  conceived  to  be  so 
intensely  heated  as  to  be  in  the  state  of 
true  gas  or  vapor."  That  is  all  the  light  we 


150  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

get  on  the  subject,  and  that  is  just  no  light 
at  all. 

"  The  nebulous  matter  is  conceived  to  be  so 
intensely  heated  "  by  what?  When  we  look 
at  the  rotation  of  planets  in  orbits  we  behold 
movements,  for  the  origin  of  which  this  nebular 
theory  professes  to  give  us  an  historical  account, 
pointing  us  to  an  axial  rotation  of  a  hypothet- 
ical cosmical  mass  as  the  original  of  the  orbital 
planetary  rotation. 

When  we  turn  our  thoughts  to  this  hypo- 
thetical cosmical  -mass,  and  consider  its  axial 
rotation,  we  behold  a  movement  for  which  the 
nebular  theory  professes  to  render  an  account, 
assigning  as  its  cause  the  cooling  and  contract- 
ing of  the  cosmical  matter.  But  this  "  cooling 
of  the  matter "  is  simply  the  subsidence  of 
molecular  movements  in  the  matter.  Heat  is 
molecular  activity.  Cold  is  molecular  inac- 
tivity or  rest.  In  this  chain  of  causes  we  have 
now  reached  the  most  important  of  all.  Here 
is  the  "  primitive  impulse  which  originated  the 
grand  rotation."  It  must  be  here,  and  we 
wish  to  know  what  it  is. 

Here  is  motion,  molecular  motion,  more  in- 
tense than  any  that  is  known  in  our  day.  It 


Planetary  History.  151 

is  more  intense  than  that  which  exists  in  the 
sun.  What  is  the  cause  of  this  motion  ?  And 
how  is  this  motion  maintained  ?  And  why  is 
this  molecular  motion  supposed  to  subside 
first  at  the  surface,  where  there  is  nothing  to 
react  upon  it  ? 

In  our  simplicity  we  have  supposed  that  all 
motion  implied  the  previous  existence  and  the 
application  of  force.  Molecular  motion  is  not 
an  exception  to  the  rule,  so  far  as  we  know. 
Then  we  are  justified  in  demanding  a  cause, 
in  some  mentionable  force,  for  the  hypothet- 
ical high  heat  of  the  original  cosmical  matter. 
Here  the  nebular  theory  seems  to  us  to  leave 
the  cosmical  mass  in  a  situation  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  Deacon  Homespun's  world. 
His  world  was  as  flat  as  a  pancake.  His  world 
rested  on  rocks.  These  rocks  rested  on  rocks. 
And  those  rocks  rested  on  rocks ;  and,  finally, 
"Well,  you  simpleton,  it's  rocks  all  the  way 
down."  And  thus  the  stability  of  the  world  is 
accounted  for. 

So,  according  to  the  nebular  theory,  we  have 
a  world  in  motion,  and  its  motions  are  accounted 
for  by  referring  them  to  an  axial  rotation  of  a 
cosmical  mass.  Then  this  axial  rotation  must 


152  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

be  accounted  for.  And  the  theory  assigns,  as 
its  cause,  the  cooling  and  contracting  of  the 
mass,  which  "  Is  conceived  to  be  so  intensely 
heated  as  to  be  in  the  state  of  a  true  gas  or 
vapor."  Here,  in  this  indescribable  heat,  is 
the  most  stupendous  motion  of  all,  the  molec- 
ular motion,  which  was  capable  of  tearing  in 
pieces  the  aggregate  matter  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem, dissociating  the  elements,  and  giving  to 
the  mass  so  great  tenuity  that  three  cubic 
miles  of  the  stuff  should  be  less  than  one  grain 
in  weight,  and  here  the  nebular  theory  leaves  us 
uninformed  as  to  the  cause  of  this  stupendous 
activity.  "  Rocks  all  the  way  down."  Just 
so,  deacon  ;  that  is  just  as  scientific  as  to  say, 
uMotion  all  the  -way  back"  We  put  your  cos- 
mical  theory  and  this  nebular  theory  in  the 
same  category  as  equally  rational. 

But  we  must  follow  the  track  of  this  cos- 
mical  history.  If  it  does  not  inform  us  how 
the  motion  began,  it  does  tell  us  something  of 
what  follows.  Let  us  pass  those  periods  dur- 
ing which  the  planetary  masses  were  detached 
as  gaseous  bodies ;  let  us  hasten  on,  not  stop- 
ping even  to  glance  at  the  gaseous  satellites, 


Planetary  History.  153 

and  let  us  not  be  delayed  by  the  terrific  ele- 
mental convulsions  which  took  place  when  the 
elements  awoke  to  the  realization  of  their  first 
love  and  rushed  into  each  other's  embrace, 
and  let  us  look  at  the  subdued,  tempered, 
peopled  earth,  with  its  strong  rocky  crust,  its 
broad  oceans,  and  its  vital  atmosphere  envel- 
oping all.  There  have  been  mighty  upheav- 
als. Great  mountain  ranges  have  been  built 
up,  ocean  beds  have  been  depressed,  the  igne- 
ous rocks  have  been  exposed  to  winter's  frosts 
and  parched  by  summer  suns  ;  pelted  by  tor- 
rents of  acidulated  rain,  and  worn  by  unre- 
strained hurricanes;  and  thus  cracked,  shiv- 
ered, corroded,  crushed,  the  waters  have  swept 
the  disintegrated  ruins  down  into  the  ocean. 
Again  and  again  this  process  of  evolution,  dis- 
integration, and  transportation  of  rock  material 
has  been  repeated. 

The  terrestrial  stage  has  already  lasted  un- 
told ages.  Yet,  even  now,  what  the  world  was, 
is  indicated  to  us  by  what  it  is.  Within  its 
crust  is  a  globe  of  liquid  fire.  The  crust  itself 
is  only  a  few  miles  in  thickness.  Here  and 
there  great  openings  afford  to  the  curious  a 
sight  of  the  boiling  hot  elements. 


154  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

These  things  prove  what  was  the  earth's 
former  state.  But  all  do  not  accept  this  inter- 
pretation of  the  facts  of  terrestrial  history. 
Dr.  Hunt  says  :  "  The  effect  of  pressure  upon 
materials  like  molten  rocks  would  be  such  that 
solidification  at  a  depth  from  the  surface 
would  take  place  at  a  temperature  much  high- 
er than  that  required  for  their  solidification  at 
the  surface.  Hence,  in  opposition  to  the  no- 
tion of  a  congealed  layer,  like  ice,  resting  upon 
the  surface  of  the  molten  globe,  Hopkins,  and 
with  him  Scrope,  supposes  solidification  to  have 
commenced  at  the  center  of  the  liquid  mass, 
and  to  have  advanced  toward  the  circumfer- 
ence." 

We  shall  not,  therefore,  be  without  excel- 
lent company  if  we  venture  to  express  a  doubt 
that  our  earth  has  a  superficial  crust  and  an 
interior  molten  mass.  We  may  be  permitted 
the  thought  that  we  live  on  a  globe  which  is 
chiefly  solid,  that  the  liquid  portion  is  quite 
small  in  proportion  to  the  whole  mass,  and 
that  the  portion  that  is  molten  with  high  heat 
is  a  still  smaller  portion  than  the  lakes  and 
seas  that  variegate  the  surface. 

Dr.    Hunt   further   remarks :   "  Apart  from 


Planetary  History.  155 

these  considerations,  however,  many  of  the 
best  modern  physicists  and  geologists  have 
found  numerous  reasons  for  rejecting  the  pop- 
ular notion  which  regards  our  globe  as  a  liquid 
molten  mass  covered  by  a  layer  of  twenty  or 
thirty  miles  of  solidified  rock.  The  deduc- 
tions of  Hopkins  from  the  phenomena  of  pre- 
cession and  nutation  ;  those  of  Pratt  from  the 
crushing  force  of  immense  mountain  masses, 
like  those  of  the  Himalaya  ;  and  those  of  Sir 
William  Thompson  from  the  tides,  showing 
the  great  rigidity  of  the  earth — all  unite  to 
prove  that  the  earth,  if  not  solid  to  the  center, 
must  have  a  firm  and  solid  crust  several  hun- 
dred miles  in  thickness.  Under  these  con- 
ditions, if  there  still  exist  a  liquid  center,  it 
must,  so  far  as  superficial  phenomena  are  con- 
cerned, be  as  inert  as  if  it  were  not.  We  are 
thus  prepared  to  accept  the  conclusions  to 
which  the  line  of  argument  leads  us,  and  ad- 
mit that  our  globe  solidified  from  the  center." 
— Chemistry  of  the  Rarth. 

If  the  earth  solidified  from  the  center,  then 
it  is  solid  at  the  center.  How  far  outwardly 
from  the  center  does  the  solidification  extend  ? 
Evidently  it  must  extend  outwardly  to  the 


156  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

surface,  or  we  must  suppose  a  solid  globe 
within  a  molten  envelope,  which  itself  is  in- 
closed within  a  solid  shell.  It  would  be  a 
curious  problem  to  determine  what  would  be 
the  result  of  such  an  arrangement  as  this. 

But  it  would  seem  that  if  the  center, 
and  from  the  center  outward  for  any  great 
distance,  is  solid,  there  is  nothing  to  justify 
the  conclusion  that  an  intermediate,  continuous, 
concentric  chamber,  so  to  speak,  is  filled  with 
matter  in  original  molten  condition. 

The  nebular  theory,  as  set  forth  by  Win- 
chell,  finds  all  its  contractions  arising  from  the 
cooling  of  the  mass.  The  internal  fires  are 
inclosed  within  the  rocky  crust.  Very  grad- 
ually the  heat  is  being  radiated,  because  it  is 
only  slowly  conducted  to  the  surface.  But 
the  crust  is  thickening  constantly  by  the  cool- 
ing of  that  portion  of  the  interior  mass  which 
is  in  contact  with  the  crust. 

The  present  condition  of  the  moon  is  sup- 
posed to  be  such  as  that  toward  which  the 
earth  is  progressing.  There  the  theory  be- 
holds a  world  whose  interior  fires  have  quite 
burned  out ;  whose  oceans,  and  seas,  and  at- 
mosphere have  been  sucked  up  by  the  rocks ; 


Planetary  History.  157 

a  world  which  is  now  "  a  fossil  world,  an  an- 
cient cinder,  suspended  in  the  heavens ;  once 
the  seat  of  all  the  varied  and  intense  activities 
which  now  characterize  the  surface  of  our 
earth,  but  in  the  present  period  a  realm  of 
silence  and  stagnation. " 

And  the  same  process  of  refrigeration  which 
has  brought  the  moon  to  a  state  of  desolation 
and  solitude  is  now  going  on  within  and  upon 
the  earth.  Thus  the  history  runs,  from  the  in- 
conceivable heat  and  the  attenuated  gaseous 
condition,  to  the  denser  vapor;  'then  to  the 
liquid;  then  to  the  solid,  (but  still  the  white 
hot  solid ;)  afterward  to  the  red  hot ;  afterward 
to  the  blackened,  igneous  rock,  and  on  to  the 
cooled  exterior,  and  the  molten,  fervid  inte- 
rior, and  the  end,  is  to  be  a  cold,  cheerless 
desolation. 

How  much  of  this  theory  owes  its  exist- 
ence to  the  fact  that  we  know  of  the  exist- 
ence of  subterranean  fires,  and  lakes  of  liquid 
lava?  From  molten  lava  to  the  assumption 
of  an  original  molten  earth  is  not  a  very  ex- 
travagant flight  of  the  imagination  ;  and  from 
the  molten  earth  to  the  igneous  nebular  con- 
dition is  not  a  very  difficult  flight,  especially 


158  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

if  one  may  rest  the  wings  of  his  fancy  on  real 
nebula  in  the  heavens. 

But  a  molten  earth  is  an  assumed  point. 
Though  deemed  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  data,  it  is  only  an  assumption.  Take  this 
away,  and  what  becomes  of  the  theory?  We 
are  quite  sure  that  this  molten  earth  is  really 
a  necessity  to  the  theory.  What  else  but  the 
internal  fires  prevents  the  rocks  from  absorbing 
the  terrestrial  oceans  and  the  terrestrial  atmos- 
phere ? 

And  yet  this  molten  earth  is  taken  away 
and  rendered  absolutely  unavailable  by  the 
computations  and  reasonings  of  "  many  of  the 
best  physicists  and  geologists,"  and  they  do 
reject  this  "  popular  notion  "  of  a  "  liquid, 
molten  mass  surrounded  by  a  layer  of  twenty 
or  thirty  miles  of  solidified  rock." 

These  physicists  are — at  least  some  of  them 
are — men  who  accept  the  Nebular  Hypothesis. 
Yet  they  find  that  the  present  earth  is  not  a 
molten  globe,  enveloped  by  a  thin  crust,  but 
that  it  must  be  considered  as  almost  entirely 
solid.  And  this  they  do  mathematically,  and 
not  with  loose  generalizations. 

The  question  with  them  is  not,  "  What  was 


Planetary  History.  159 

the  earth  once  ?  "  but  "  What  is  it  now?  "  To 
this  question  they  make  answer,  and  the  an- 
swer is,  "  The  earth  is  so  nearly  solid,  that  if 
there  be  any  portion  near  the  center  that  is 
molten,  it  is,  so  far  as  external  phenomena  are 
concerned,  as  inert  as  if  it  were  not."  And 
then  Dr.  Hunt  comes  in  with  his  chemical 
data,  and  shows  that  this  condition  of  central 
solidity  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  law  of  so- 
lidification  of  metals  and  metallic  compounds 
under  pressure. 

We  are  warranted,  therefore,  not  only  in  the 
conclusion  that  the  fluidity  of  the  central  earth 
is  not  proven,  but  that,  even  if  the  whole  mass 
were  once  fluid  from  the  effect  of  heat,  it  is 
not  fluid  now.  And  if  not  fluid  now,  then  all 
the  theoretic  history,  based  on  the  assumption 
of  its  present  fluidity,  fails  with  the  assumption. 

Sir  CHARLES  LYELL  presents  another  view 
of  the  subject.  He  says  :  "  The  conditions  of 
the  problem  are  wholly  altered  when  we  rea- 
son about  a  fluid  nucleus,  as  we  must  do  if  it 
be  assumed  that  the  heat  augments  from  the 
surface  to  the  interior  according  to  the  rate 
observed  in  mines.  For  when  the  heat  of  the 
lower  portion  of  a  fluid  is  increased,  a  circula- 


160  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

tion  begins  throughout  the  mass  by  the  as- 
cent of  hotter  and  the  descent  of  colder  cur- 
rents. And  this  circulation,  which  is  quite 
distinct  from  the  mode  in  which  heat  is  prop- 
agated through  solid  bodies,  must  evidently 
occur  in  the  supposed  central  ocean,  if  the  law 
of  fluids  and  of  heat  are  the  same  there  as 
upon  the  surface.  In  Mr.  Daniel's  experi- 
ments for  obtaining  a  measure  of  the  heat  of 
bodies  at  their  point  of  fusion,  he  invariably 
found  that  it  was  impossible  to  raise  the  heat 
of  a  large  crucible  of  melted  iron,  gold,  or  sil- 
ver a  single  degree  beyond  the  melting  point 
so  long  as  a  bar  of  the  respective  metals  was 
kept  immersed  in  the  fluid  portions.  So,  in 
regard  to  other  substances,  however  great  the 
quantities  fused,  their  temperatures  could  not 
be  raised  while  any  solid  pieces  immersed  in 
them  remained  unmelted,  every  accession  of 
heat  being  instantly  absorbed  during  their 
liquefaction.  These  results  are,  in  fact,  no 
more  than  the  extension  of  a  principle  pre- 
viously established,  that  so  long  as  a  fragment 
of  ice  remains  in  water  we  cannot  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  water  above  thirty-two  de- 
grees Fahrenheit.  There  must  be  a  continual 


Planetary  History.  161 

tendency  toward  a  uniform  heat,  and  until  this 
were  accomplished  by  the  interchange  of  por- 
tions of  fluid  of  different  densities  the  surface 
could  not  begin  to  consolidate.  Nor  on  the 
hypothesis  of  primitive  fluidity  can  we  con- 
ceive any  crust  to  have  been  formed  until  the 
whole  planet  had  cooled  down  to  about  the 
temperature  of  incipient  fusion." — Principles 
of  Geology. 

Lyell  also  refers  to  the  opinions  of  M.  PoiS- 
SON,  as  set  forth  in  a  memoir  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1837,  on  ^he  solid  parts  of  the 
globe,  and  adds :  "  In  this  memoir  he  contro- 
verts the  doctrine  of  the  high  temperature  of 
a  central  fluid  on  similar  grounds  to  those 
above  stated.  He  imagines  that  if  the  earth 
ever  passed  from  a  liquid  to  a  solid  state  by 
the  radiation  of  heat,  the  central  nucleus  must 
have  begun  to  cool  and  consolidate  first." 

One  consideration  more  occurs  to  our  mind 
as  worthy  of  record  on  this  subject.  Assum- 
ing the  fluidity  of  the  earth,  and  the  presence 
of  the  elements  now  present  in  it,  we  cannot 
conceive  how  the  formation  of  a  superficial 
crust  was  possible. 

First.  Because  of  the  agitation  of  the  surf  ace 
11 


162  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

by  the  process  of  convection,  to  which  our  at- 
tention has  been  called  by  Lyell.  That  tre- 
mendous agitation  of  the  primitive  ocean,  to 
which  Winchell  refers,  would  have  been  less 
than  a  ripple  caused  by  the  gentlest  zephyr, 
in  comparison  with  the  spouting,  out-bursting 
exhibitions  of  the  heart-force  from  within  the 
mass  of  molten  matter.  And  this  activity 
must  have  continued  until  the  whole  mass 
came  near  the  temperature  of  solidification. 

Secondly.  Because  of  the  effect  which  must 
have  been  ex«rted  by  the  tides.  We  speak 
not  now  of  the  ocean  tides,  but  of  tides  in  the 
molten  mass  itself.  It  would  seem  that  these 
must  have  been  of  far  greater  magnitude  than 
the  ocean  tides  now  are,  and  that  they  must 
have  broken  up  the  incipient  crust,  which, 
falling  into  the  mass  and  subjected  to  the  con- 
vulsing agencies  of  the  convectional  process, 
would  be  broken,  crushed,  and  fused.  So  we 
are  brought  again  to  the  same  conclusion,  that 
if  the  earth  were  once  molten  it  could*  not, 
by  the  simple  process  of  cooling,  become  solid 
superficially  while  remaining  fluid  internally 
from  retained  heat. 


Terrestrial  Changes.  163 


CHAPTER  X. 

TERRESTRIAL  CHANGES. 

Earthquakes  and  volcanoes — Molten  interior  earth — Thick- 
ness of  the  earth's  crust — Subterranean  lakes  of  fire — Habit- 
ual volcanic  action. 

DO  the  advocates  of  the  nebular  theory 
ask,  "  If  the  interior  of  the  earth  be  not 
in  a  molten  condition,  how  can  we  account  for 
earthquakes  and  volcanoes?"  We  may  reply 
with  another  question,  "  If  the  interior  of  the 
earth  be  in  a  molten  condition,  with  a  thin  su- 
perficial crust,  how  can  we  account  for  earth- 
quakes and  volcanoes?" 

By  the  internal  tides  ?  Then  volcanic  erup- 
tions must  be  greatest  in  the  line  of  the  moon's 
path,  and  they  must  occur  regularly  twice 
every  day  the  year  round.  Moreover,  as  in 
the  ocean,  there  are  spring  tides,  caused  by 
the  joint  influence  of  the  sun  and  moon  ;  and 
neap  tides,  arising  from  their  quadrature  ;  so, 
also,  in  the  interior  molten  mass  there  must  be 
spring  tides  and  neap  tides,  and  we  should  see 


164  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

their  effects  in  increased  volcanic  activity. 
But  we  do  not  see  any  of  the  manifestations 
of  such  interior  tides.  The  volcanoes  are  not 
situated  in  any  such  zone  as  this  hypothesis 
would  require,  and  their  activity  is  not  at  all 
correspondent  to  the  supposition. 

But  we  have  also  shown  that  such  internal 
tides  would  break  the  crust  itself  in  pieces,  and 
that  its  permanent  formation  would  be  impos- 
sible till  the  interior  mass  had  cooled  off  to 
near  the  temperature  of  solidification.  Then 
there  would  remain  no  interior  molten  earth, 
to  account  for  earthquakes  and  volcanoes. 
Still,  we  must  not  ignore  the  fact  that  many 
geologists  do  maintain  the  theory  of  a  central 
molten  earth,  and  that  they  by  it  undertake 
to  account  for  earthquakes  and  volcanoes. 

Nearly  all  the  elementary  works  on  physical 
geography  and  on  geology  designed  for  the 
use  of  schools,  and  nearly  all  the  popular  trea- 
tises on  these  subjects,  teach  the  theory  of  an 
internal  molten  condition  of  the  earth,  and 
sometimes  the  volcanic  openings  are  described 
as  the  "  safety-valves  of  the  globe." 

Perhaps  we  should  gratefully  contemplate 
these  singular  provisions  for  the  world's  safety, 


Terrestrial  Changes.  165 

and  just  here  lay  down  our  pen.  But  we 
choose  to  continue  our  inquiry.  We  open  one 
of  the  elementary  text-books  of  the  day,  and 
find  that  "  it  is  believed  by  most  geologists 
that  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  in  a  molten 
state,  that  the  whole  earth  has  been  in  that 
condition,  and  that  the  crust  or  solid  portion 
is  not  more  than  fifty  or  one  hundred  miles 
thick." — Tennys  Geology. 

The  grounds  of  this  belief  of  geologists  are 
various,  but  the  most  plausible  are  the  ob- 
served increase  of  temperature  in  mines,  and 
the  similar  increase  of  the  temperature  of  the 
waters  of  artesian  wells,  as  we  go  down  into  the 
greater  depths. 

"  The  sun  does  not  affect  the  temperature 
of  the  earth  below  the  depth  of  one  hundred 
feet.  But  for  every  forty-five  or  fifty  feet  of 
descent  below  that  point  the  temperature  rises 
about  one  degree  Fahrenheit.  If  the  increase 
go  on  at  that  rate,  a  point  would  soon  be 
reached  where  the  heat  is  sufficient  to  melt 
all  known  substances." — Tenny. 

Our  readers  can  make  their  own  estimates. 
Every  fifty  feet  of  depth  below  the  first  one 
hundred  feet  is  equal  to  one  degree  of  heat. 


i66  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

Now  iron  melts  at  2,786  degrees ;  gold,  at 
2,590  degrees ;  zinc,  at  680  degrees ;  lead,  at 
612  degrees;  bismuth,  at  540  degrees;  sodium, 
at  200  degrees,  etc.  How  far  down  must  we 
go  to  find  a  heat  sufficient  to  fuse  iron  ?  Ev- 
idently we  must  go  100+50x2,786  degrees= 
139,400  feet,  and  that  is  26.4  miles.  But  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  has  shown  that  when  a  metal 
of  low  fusibility  is  mixed  with  one  of  high 
fusibility,  the  two  metals  will  melt  at  a 
lower  temperature  than  either  of  them  would 
melt  at  alone.  By  combining  bismuth,  lead, 
and  tin,  he  produced  an  alloy  which  melted 
below  two  hundred  and  twelve  degrees.  We 
know  that  silica,  and  soda,  and  potash  are 
abundant  in  the  earth,  and  though  silica 
withstands  the  heat  of  the  blow-pipe,  yet  we 
know  that  it  readily  fuses  in  the  glass  manu- 
facturer's furnace  when  mixed  with  lime,  soda, 
and  potash. 

We  might  extend  our  list  of  substances, 
each  of  which  acts  as  a  flux  to  others,  making 
them  less  refractory  when  mixed  together. 
Now  we  are  contemplating  a  mass  of  matter 
in  which  all  the  elements  are  intermixed.  We 
are  not  at  liberty  to  say  the  temperature  must 


Terrestrial  Changes.  167 

be  raised  to  the  point  at  which  platinum,  or 
silica,  or  alumina  would  separately  fuse  before 
the  mass  of  mixed  elements  will  be  found 
fused.  We  shall  probably  be  justified  in  as- 
suming that  at  the  fusing  temperature  of  iron 
or  gold,  the  mass  of  the  material  of  the  earth 
would  be  fused.  Then  we  should  be  brought 
also  to  the  conclusion  that  the  crust  of  the 
earth  cannot  be  more  than  26.4  miles  thick. 

Our  geologists  are  apparently  startled  by 
their  own  figures.  At  least  they  are  consider- 
ate of  the  nerves  of  the  common  people,  who 
have  no  idea  how  near  they  are  to  the  great 
lake  of  liquid  fire.  An  egg  shell  is  of  great 
thickness  when  compared  with  this  supposi- 
titious terrestrial  shell. 

But  the  geologist  says  the  thickness  is  fifty 
or  one  hundred  miles,  as  if  fifty  were  almost 
one  hundred,  leaving  a  slight  margin  to  meet 
the  contingency  of  any  minute  error  that 
might  have  slipped  into  the  calculation. 

Before  we  leave  this  subject  we  would  re- 
mark that  the  data  on  which  these  estimates 
of  the  rate  of  increase  of  heat  are  based  are 
too  meager  to  justify  a  general  conclusion. 
That  there  is  an  increase  of  temperature  as  we 


i68  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

descend  into  mines  is  true,  and  that  there  is 
an  increase  of  temperature  in  water  from  lower 
depths  is  also  true  ;  but  physicists  are  by  no 
means  agreed  as  to  its  cause.  It  may  be 
chemical  ;  it  may  be  mechanical ;  it  may  be 
proximity  to  subterranean  fires  ;  and  yet  those 
fires  may  be  local. 

The  deepest  well  of  which  we  know  is  that 
at  Sperenburg,  near  Berlin,  Prussia.  That 
well,  it  is  said,  does  not  indicate  a  uniform 
increase  of  temperature  as  we  descend.  The 
well  is  four  thousand  one  hundred  and  ninety- 
four  feet  deep.  At  the  depth  of  one  hundred 
feet  the  temperature  was  57.2  degrees  ;  at  one 
thousand  feet  it  was  73.8  degrees,  an  increase 
of  one  degree  for  every  54.2  feet ;  at  the  depth 
of  two  thousand  feet  the  temperature  was  91.4 
degrees,  an  increase  of  one  degree  for  every 
56.8  feet ;  at  the  depth  of  three  thousand  feet 
the  temperature  was  109.4  degrees,  an  increase 
of  one  for  every  55.5  feet;  and  at  the  depth 
of  four  thousand  feet  the  temperature  was 
1 1 8.6  degrees,  an  increase  of  one  degree  for 
every  108  feet. 

It  would  seem,  then,  that  there  is  no  certain 
rate  of  increase  of  heat  as  we  descend  into  the 


Terrestrial  Changes.  169 

earth.  It  is  possible  that  the  next  thousand 
feet  would  show  still  less  increase.  It  may  be 
that  there  is  in  the  solid  earth,  to  the  depth 
of  four  or  five  miles,  sufficient  chemical  activity 
to  produce  a  sensible  increase  of  temperature. 
It  may  be  that  magnetic  or  electrical  condi- 
tions exist,  which,  if  known,  would  elucidate 
all.  All  we  certainly  know  is  that  the  increase 
of  temperature  is  not  uniform,  nor  uniformly 
accelerated,  as  we  have  reason  to  expect  it  to 
be,  on  the  supposition  that  the  whole  globe  is 
molten  matter,  except  a  thin  crust. 

We  open  another  elementary  text-book  of 
geology,  and  we  read  :  "  The  appreciable  or 
ponderable  crust  of  the  earth,  however,  calcu- 
lating from  the  astronomical  phenomena  of 
precession  and  nutation,  cannot  be  less  than  a 
fourth  or  a  fifth  of  the  earth's  radius  ;  that  is, 
it  cannot  be  much  less  than  eight  hundred 
miles." — Wells  s  First  Prin.  Geol. 

The  precession  of  the  equinoxes  is  caused 
by  the  attraction  of  the  sun  and  moon  on  the 
equatorial  protuberances  of  the  earth.  It  is 
evident  that  the  amount  of  disturbance  which 
would  result  from  these  attractions  would  not 


170          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

be  the  same  if  the  earth  were  fluid  that  they 
would  if  the  earth  were  wholly  or  chiefly  solid. 

Mr.  Hopkins,  after  carefully  estimating  the 
effects  of  these  attractions  on  the  different  sup- 
positions, says :  "  Upon  the  whole,  then,  we 
may  venture  to  assert  that  the  minimum  thick- 
ness of  the  crust  of  the  globe,  which  can  be 
deemed  consistent  with  the  observed  amount 
of  precession,  cannot  be  less  than  one  fourth  or 
one  fifth  of  the  earth's  radius." 

Pratt  arrived  at  the  same  conclusion  from 
an  estimation  of  the  crushing  force  of  certain 
great  mountain  masses,  and  Sir  William 
Thompson  reached  the  same  conclusion  from 
a  consideration  of  the  tides.  If,  then,  we  have 
a  central  molten  earth,  we  are  obliged  to  con- 
ceive of  it  as  separated  from  the  surface  by  a 
rocky  crust  of  from  eight  hundred  to  one  thou- 
sand miles  in  thickness. 

We  now  return  to  the  question,  "  If  the  in- 
terior of  the  earth  be  a  molten  mass,  enveloped 
by  a  thin  shell,  how  can  we  account  for  earth- 
quakes and  volcanoes?"  Do  the  phenomena 
attendant  upon  earthquakes  and  volcanoes  in- 
dicate a  molten  condition  of  the  interior  of  the 
earth?  They  do  indicate  a  molten  condition 


Terrestrial  Changes.  171 

of  a  portion  of  the  earth.  But  is  it  a  central 
portion  ?  Is  it  a  portion  whose  perpendicular 
distance  from  the  point  of  surface  exhibition 
must  be  reckoned  at  a  score  or  two  score,  or 
by  even  hundreds  of  miles  ?  Do  they  indi- 
cate a  common  origin,  that  is,  are  the  phe- 
nomena such  as  could  proceed  from  a  com- 
mon source  ?  Does  not  each  indicate  an  or- 
igin, respectively,  in  a  local  subterranean 
chamber?  How  extensive  the  subterranean 
lakes  of  fire  are  we  may  never  know ;  yet, 
compared  with  the  globe  itself,  they  are  prob- 
ably small. 

How,  otherwise,  can  we  account  for  the  fact 
that  volcanoes  are  so  widely  separated  and  so 
local  ?  The  whole  world  is  not  volcanic.  But 
there  are  districts  which  are  now  volcanic  and 
have  been  for  ages,  and  there  are  other  districts 
which  were  once  volcanic,  and  are  now,  and 
have  been  for  ages,  free  from  volcanic  action. 
If  volcanoes  originated  in  the  central 'part  of  the 
earth,  then,  whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  forces 
which  produced  them,  and  whatever  be  the 
method  of  their  generation,  we  should  expect 
to  find  them  more  generally  distributed  than 
they  are,  unless  we  refer  them  to  internal  tides. 


\j2          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

Again,  assuming  that  the  earth's  crust  is 
fifty  miles  thick,  then  what  prevents  the  slen- 
der chimneys  of  the  volcanoes  becoming 
clogged  and  utterly  stopped  by  the  ascending 
column  of  liquid  rocks  being  cooled  and  solid- 
ified? We  do  soberly  question  the  possibility 
of  keeping  the  world's  safety-valves  open  if 
the  molten  matter  has  to  be  lifted  a  perpen- 
dicular height  of  fifty  miles  through  the  small 
chimney  that  a  volcano  offers  for  its  passage. 

But  we  are  compelled  to  contemplate  a  still 
longer  chimney  by  the  calculations  of  Hop- 
kins. It  cannot  be  less  than  eight  hundred 
miles.  Now,  while  it  would  tax  our  credulity 
to  admit  the  existence  of  any  forces  in  the 
central  chambers  of  the  earth  which  could 
lift  a  perpendicular  column  of  lava  of  eight 
hundred  miles,  we  are  even  less  ready  to  be- 
lieve that  such  a  long  column  could  possibly 
maintain  its  liquidity. 

But  there  is  great  difficulty  in  accounting 
for  the  ejection  of  the  lava  from  so  great  a 
depth,  and  especially  from  so  vast  a  chamber 
as  the  interior  of  the  earth  must  be  if  its  crust 
is  only  fifty,  or  even  one  hundred  miles  thick. 
We  can  conceive  of  a  comparatively  small 


Terrestrial  Changes.  173 

subterranean  chamber  being  formed  by  the 
changes  of  the  constituent  portions  of  the 
rocks  effected  by  chemical  action ;  we  can 
conceive  of  the  evolution  of  heat,  the  liber- 
ation of  gases,  the  melting  of  rocks,  the  gener- 
ation of  steam,  and  the  consequent  exertion 
of  immense  force  upon  the  surrounding  mass. 
And  conceiving  of  the  crust  above  the  sup- 
posed chamber  as  being  comparatively  thin, 
we  can  conceive  of  these  forces  being  intens- 
ified to  such  a  degree  that  they  will  effect  a 
rupture  of  the  rocks  and  produce  an  earth- 
quake or  a  volcano,  or  both.  But  if  we  refer 
the  earthquake  to  the  same  class  of  forces,  and 
conceive  of  them  as  being  generated  below  the 
crust,  whether  we  suppose  that  crust  to  be 
fifty  miles  or  eight  hundred  miles  thick,  then 
we  have  an  entirely  different  condition  of 
things.  If  there  be  any  space  at  all  between 
the  liquid  central  mass  and  the  solid  crust,  we 
shall  find  it  closed  on  the  sides  where  tides 
are  formed,  and  open  on  the  sides  in  quadra- 
ture thereto.  If  the  forces  that  are  gener- 
ated are  greater  than  the  upward  tidal  press- 
ure, they  will  more  than  support  the  crust 
— provided  that  they  can  be  confined — and 


174          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

will  cause  a  succession  of  earthquakes  as  the 
earth  revolves  on  its  axis,  the  strain  being  con- 
stantly transferred  to  that  portion  which  is  in 
quadrature  with  the  tide. 

But  in  any  event,  if  the  forces  which  are 
supposed  to  cause  the  earthquake  are  gases  or 
steam,  and  if  they  be  supposed  to  be  generated 
at  the  surface  of  the  liquid  mass,  they  will 
have  an  immense  area  over  which  they  must 
extend  before  they  can  exert  any  lifting  or 
disrupting  power,  and  whatever  power  they 
exert  must  be  almost  equally  exerted  over 
that  immense  area.  We  do  not  see  how  this 
class  of  agencies — steam,  gas,  etc.— can  ever 
produce  a  volcanic  eruption  ;  that  is,  how  they 
could,  by  their  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the 
molten  mass,  cause  a  column  of  it  to  ascend 
through  one  of  these  volcanic  chimneys,  un- 
less it  should  be  in  those  regions  where  the 
internal  tides  press  against  the  crust ;  and 
when  we  consider  how  brief  a  time  the  tide 
can  last  at  any  given  point,  we  shall  see  that 
there  would  not  be  time  for  the  upward  flow 
to  reach  the  surface  of  the  earth  before  the 
open  space  would  be  brought  beneath  the 
chimney. 


Terrestrial  Changes.  175 

But  we  are  unable  to  perceive  how  there 
could  ever  be  any  considerable  accumulation 
of  gas  or  steam  beneath  the  crust  under  the 
conditions  that  are  known  to  exist,  for  the  di- 
urnal rotation  would  be  constantly  bringing 
the  open  space  under  the  chimneys,  and  the 
forces  would  be  constantly  escaping.  A  steam 
boiler  with  a  hundred  leaks,  though  they  were 
no  larger  than  a  hair,  would  be  regarded  as  an 
inefficient  motor  agency.  We  cannot  see  how 
the  escape  of  the  forces  could  be  avoided. 
Every  fracture  of  the  crust,  as  well  as  every 
old  opening,  would  allow  them  to  escape. 
How,  then,  could  they  accumulate  so  as  to 
push  up  even  a  fifty-mile  column  of  molten 
rock,  and  display  all  the  activities  of  actual 
eruptions. 

Volcanic  energies  are  known  to  increase  in 
the  same  locality  for  days  and  weeks,  and 
then  to  culminate  in  grand  eruptions,  fol- 
lowed by  seasons  of  quiet.  How  can  such 
local  paroxysms  be  reconciled  with  the  theory 
of  an  internal  liquid  mass  and  an  outer  crust  ? 

But  having  proceeded  thus  far  on  the  pre- 
sumption that  there  might  be  a  generation  of 
steam  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  we  now  call 


176  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

in  question  the  possibility  of  such  generation. 
Winchell  says :  "  Consider  that  in  the  present 
condition  of  our  globe  the  water  and  air  must 
be  unable  to  penetrate  more  than  one  fiftieth 
the  distance  to  the  earth's  center.  Percolat- 
ing downward  through  the  rocks,  the  water 
soon  reaches  a  temperature  which  dissipates 
it  into  vapor,  and  returns  it  toward  the  surface 
to  be  recondensed." 

One  fiftieth  the  distance  to  the  earth's  cen- 
ter is  about  eighty  miles.  That  is  thirty  miles 
further  than  many  geologists  allow  for  the 
thickness  of  the  earth's  crust.  Let  us  make 
an  estimate  on  the  assumption  that  the  tem- 
perature increases  one  degree  for  every  fifty 
feet  of  descent.  At  the  depth  of  one  hundred 
feet  the  temperature  averages  about  fifty-eight 
degrees.  At  two  hundred  and  twelve  degrees 
water  is  converted  to  vapor.  At  four  hundred 
and  fifty-six  degrees  steam  has  a  tension  equal 
to  thirty  atmospheres.  At  this  tension  is  it 
likely  to  penetrate  farther  into  the  rocky 
depths  ?  Let  us  suppose  that  at  four  hundred 
and  fifty-six  degrees  of  temperature  the  de- 
scent of  water  will  be  arrested.  What  depth 
has  it  reached?  456°  —  58°  =  398°.  And 


Terrestrial  Changes.  177 

398°x5o  feet=i9,900  feet.  Add  100  feet,  at 
which  depth  the  average  temperature  is  about 
58  degrees,  and  we  have  20,000  feet.  And 
20,000  feet  are  only  about  3.8  miles.  One  has 
only  to  look  at  these  figures  to  see  how  loosely 
a  theorist  will  sometimes  express  himself  on  a 
scientific  subject. 

Certainly,  if  we  grant  the  premises — to  wit, 
that  for  every  fifty  feet  of  descent  the  temper- 
ature rises  one  degree — we  must  conclude  that 
water  will  be  converted  into  steam  at  the 
depth  of  seven  thousand  eight  hundred  feet, 
and  that  at  the  depth  of  3.8  miles  the  steam, 
if  it  could  penetrate  so  far,  would  have  a  ten- 
sion of  thirty  atmospheres. 

We  conclude  that  such  a  temperature  would 
exclude  it — if  the  reasoning  of  Winchell  on 
this  point  be  correct — and  that  water,  there- 
fore, could  not  penetrate  the  earth  below  that 
depth.  But  this,  instead  of  being  one  fiftieth 
is  only  about  one  thousandth  part  of  the  dis- 
tance to  the  center  of  the  earth.  But  the  heat 
which  is  supposed  to  exist  below  the  earth's 
crust  is  many  times  as  great  as  that  which  pro- 
duces steam  of  the  tension  of  thirty  atmos- 
pheres. It  is  a  heat  of  fusion  for  all  known 
12 


178  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

substances.  And  before  reaching  the  fusing 
point  the  rocks  must  be  conceived  to  be  at  red 
heat.  Water  certainly  would  not  "  percolate  " 
long  through  red-hot  rocks.  How,  then,  can 
steam  ever  be  generated  below  the  earth's 
crust  ? 

If  the  volcanoes  have  their  origin  in  the  central 
molten  globe,  how  can  we  account  for  the  differ- 
ent habitual  behavior  of  different  volcanoes  ? 

There  is,  in  many  of  the  existing  volcanoes, 
what  may  be  called  characteristic  behavior? 
Stromboli,  which  so  long  ago  as  the  time  of 
Homer  received  honorable  mention,  is  a  kind 
of  restless,  fussy  volcano,  always  active,  but 
never  remarkably  so.  Ashes  and  vapor  as- 
cend out  of  its  crater  daily,  and  its  eruptions 
occur  periodically  at  intervals  of  three  to  five 
months.  Rancagua,  in  Chili,  is  another  active, 
but  moderate,  volcano.  Vesuvius  has  long 
seasons  of  great  tranquillity,  followed  by  tre- 
mendous subterranean  convulsions  and  over- 
whelming discharges  of  lava  and  ashes.  Etna, 
in  these  respects,  resembles  Vesuvius.  Hecla 
is  a  volcano  of  stupendous  energy.  It  some- 
times rests  for  a  period  of  years ;  then  it 


Terrestrial  Changes.  179 

gathers  its  forces,  wraps  itself  in  flames,  and 
energizes  marvelously  for  years,  until  it  seems 
to  be  exhausted  with  the  fury  of  its  own  rage, 
and  it  settles  down  again  into  quiet.  Mauna 
Loa  has  the  singular  habit  of  running  over  in 
a  very  quiet  manner,  and  sending  great  rivers 
of  liquid  lava  to  the  sea  with  very  little  dis- 
turbance to  the  land.  While  other  volcanoes 
usually  announce  the  approach  of  their  great 
eruptions  by  great  quakings  and  subterranean 
mutterings,  Mauna  Loa  scarcely  sounds  a  note 
of  warning. 

These  are  marked  distinctive  characteristics 
of  these  different  volcanoes.  They  indicate 
differences  in  their  origin.  If  we  refer  them 
to  the  different  constituents  of  the  rocks  from 
which  they  arise,  we  have  an  assigned  cause, 
which  is  in  harmony  with  their  behavior.  If 
we  refer  them  to  the  central  liquid  earth,  as 
the  common  source  of  all  volcanoes,  we  are  un- 
able to  reconcile  their  behavior  with  our  sup- 
position. The  volcanic  district  of  which  Mauna 
Loa  is  the  center  is  the  theater  of  volcanic  ac- 
tion so  singular  that  we  cannot  forbear  to  ex- 
tend our  examination  of  it,  with  direct  refer- 
ence to  the  theories  we  are  discussing. 


i8o          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

Hawaii  is  the  largest  of  the  Sandwich  Isl- 
ands. Mauna  Loa  is  a  volcanic  mountain  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  island.  It  is  about 
fourteen  thousand  feet  high.  Since  it  became 
known  to  the  civilized  world  a  number  of  erup- 
tions have  occurred.  In  1843,  during  an  erup- 
tion, a  rent  twenty-five  miles  long  was  made 
in  the  mountain.  In  1852  another  erup- 
tion took  place,  during  which  the  liquid  lava 
rose  to  near  the  top  of  the  crater  and  flowed 
out  at  a  small  opening.  .  Meanwhile  the  press- 
ure of  the  mighty  column  caused  a  break  of 
great  magnitude,  about  four  thousand  feet  low- 
er down,  and  here  it  threw  up  a  jet  of  lava  one 
thousand  feet  in  diameter  to  a  height  of  seven 
hundred  feet.  Another  eruption  in  1855  con- 
tinued during  several  months  to  send  forth  a 
river  of  lava,  which  extended  to  a  distance  of 
sixty-five  miles,  and  was  three  to  five  miles 
wide.  Again,  in  1859,  on  the  night  of  January 
23,  without  warning,  it  vomited  forth  its  liquid 
fires  so  abundantly  that  they  ran  twenty-five 
miles  during  the  night.  Jets  of  liquid  fire 
were  projected  upward  to  the  height  of  one 
thousand  five  hundred  feet.  Reaching  the 
sea,  at  a  distance  of  forty  miles,  the  volcanic 


Terrestrial  Changes,  181 

river  extended  two  miles  into  the  water.  All 
these  eruptions  have  been  attended  with  breaks 
in  the  mountain  some  distance  below  the  sum- 
mit, so  great  was  the  force  exerted  by  the 
higher  column  of  molten  lava  on  the  side  of 
the  mountain. 

About  sixteen  miles  from  Mauna  Loa,  at 
an  elevation  of  only  four  thousand  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  is  Kilauea,  the  most  re- 
markable crater  in  the  world.  Kilauea  is  an 
immense  depression,  one  thousand  feet  deep, 
three  miles  long,  and  about  one  mile  wide. 
In  the  bottom  of  this  immense  crater  are 
smaller  craters  of  different  elevations,  in  which 
the  volcanic  action  is  always  to  be  seen  in 
pools  and  lakes  of  lava.  Standing  on  the 
brink  of  the  chasm  the  spectator  beholds  the 
lava  in  one  of  these  pools  rising  to  the  height 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  or  more,  while 
in  another  it  may  descend  one  hundred  feet  or 
more.  Perhaps  one  of  them  will  be  spouting 
furiously  while  another  will  be  quiet  and 
placid.  This  great  crater  has  also  sent  forth  its 
rivers  of  molten  rocks.  Mr.  Ellis  visited  it  in 
1823,  and  he  describes  two  of  the  lava  pools 
at  the  bottom,  the  largest  of  which  he  says 


1 82  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

was  one  thousand  one  hundred  and  ninety 
yards  long.  During  that  year  there  was  an 
eruption  from  Kilauea  of  such  magnitude  that 
the  lava  stream,  where  it  entered  the  sea,  was 
four  or  five  miles  wide. 

Another  eruption  took  place  in  1832,  and 
another  in  1840.  Of  this  eruption  Mr.  Coan, 
an  American  missionary  to  the  Sandwich  Isl- 
anders, gives  an  interesting  description  : — 

"  Imagine  to  yourself  a  river  of  fused  mate- 
rials of  the  breadth  and  depth  of  Niagara,  and 
of  a  gory  red,  falling  in  one  emblazoned  sheet, 
one  raging  torrent,  into  the  ocean  !  The  at- 
mosphere in  all  directions  was  filled  with  ashes, 
spray,  and  gases,  while  the  burning  lava,  as  it 
fell  into  the  water,  was  shivered  into  millions 
of  minute  particles,  and,  being  thrown  back 
into  the  air,  fell  in  showers  of  sand  on  all  the 
surrounding  country. 

"  The  coast  was  extended  into  the  sea  a 
quarter  of  a  mile.  Three  hills  of  scoria  and 
sand  were  also  formed  in  the  sea,  the  lowest 
about  two  hundred  and  the  highest  about  three 
hundred  feet  high.  For  three  weeks  this  ter- 
rific river  disgorged  itself  into  the  sea  with  lit- 
tle abatement.  The  waters  were  heated  for 


Terrestrial  Changes.  183 

twenty  miles  along  the  coast,  and  multitudes 
of  fishes  were  killed.  The  breadth  of  the 
stream  where  it  fell  into  the  sea  is  about  half  a 
mile,  but  inland  it  varies  from  one  to  four 
miles  in  width,  conforming,  like  a  river,  to  the 
face  of  the  country  over  which  it  flowed.  The 
depth  varies  from  ten  feet  to  two  hundred,  ac- 
cording to  the  inequalities  over  which  it  passed. 
The  whole  course  of  the  stream,  from  Kilauea 
to  the  sea,  is  about  forty  miles." 

We  have  thus  given,  as  briefly  as  possible, 
an  account  of  these  two  most  singular  craters 
and  their  action.  But  the  most  remarkable 
fact  is  yet  to  be  mentioned.  That  fact  is  that 
these  two  craters  seem  never  to  be  in  sympa- 
thy with  each  other.  Mauna  Loa  may  be  send- 
ing forth  a  vast  river  of  lava  from  a  height  of 
fourteen  thousand  feet,  and  Kilauea  will  repose 
as  quietly  as  if  no  great  event  were  transpiring. 

While  the  great  river  runs  from  Mauna  Loa 
we  look  to  see  the  larger  and  lower  crater  of 
Kilauea  fill  up  with  lava  and  run  over.  And 
we  look  for  it  the  more  confidently  when  we 
behold  the  pressure  of  the  vast  column  of  lava 
in  Loa  affecting  great  breaks  in  the  mountain 
far  down  its  sides.  But  we  look  in  vain.  And 


1 84          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

we  involuntarily  ask,  "  Are  these  two  craters, 
thus  near  each  other,  connected  ?  Are  they 
both  outlets  of  the  same  interior  ocean  ?  " 

Why,  then,  does  not  the  liquid  lava  rise 
equally  in  both  ?  How  can  a  column  fourteen 
thousand  feet  high  exist  in  connection  with  an 
opening  only  four  thousand  feet  high,  and  yet 
not  flow  out  at  that  lower  opening  at  all  ? 
How  is  it  that  while  a  stream  of  lava  flows 
from  near  that  elevated  summit,  the  pools  of 
Kilauea  only  vibrate  vertically  or  spout  as  they 
ordinarily  do  ? 

All  fluids  seek  an  equilibrium.  This  is  not 
less  true  of  iron  and  other  metals  when  melted 
than  it  is  of  water.  And  we  take  advantage  of 
this  principle  or  law  of  fluids  to  convert  pig- 
iron  into  castings  of  various  forms.  Were  it 
not  for  this  law,  all  cast  forms  would  be  impos- 
sible. Whenever,  then,  a  molten  liquid  mass, 
of  whatever  element,  rising  in  a  duct,  finds  a 
lateral  opening  sufficient  for  its  volume,  it  will 
follow  the  lateral  outlet  in  preference  to  going 
higher.  That  it  would  do  this  in  these  Ha- 
waian  craters  if  the  chimneys  were  connected 
is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  very  mountain 
mass  of  Loa  is  burst  open  by  the  immense 


Terrestrial  Changes. 


185 


pressure,  and  the  lava  does  make  its  escape 
several  thousand  feet  below  the  summit  at 
every  eruption.  Now  let  it  be  assumed  that 
the  huge  duct  leading  from  the  central  earth 
to  Mauna  Loa  divides  at  some  point  in  the 
depths,  something  as  indicated  in  the  follow- 
ing figure : — 


We  can  conceive  that  in  the  formation  of 
the  volcano,  in  the  upheaving  of  the  mountain, 
the  solid  crust  would  be  so  broken  as  to  afford 
two  or  more  openings  several  miles  apart,  and 
that  these  openings  should  be  in  communica- 
tion with  each  other,  and  so  long  as  these 
openings  were  on  the  same  level,  they  would 
equally  answer  as  outlets  for  the  liquid  lava 


1 86          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

which  should  rise  to  the  surface  and  seek  an 
outlet. 

But  it  is  insupposable  that  the  molten  mat- 
ter would  follow  one  volcanic  chimney  only 
when  there  were  two  equally  eligible  ones 
meeting  at  a  point  far  below  the  place  of 
discharge.  Rising  in  either,  the  law  of  equi- 
Jibrium  would  cause  it  to  risej  equally  in  the 
other. 

If,  then,  two  craters,  of  unequal  altitude,  be 
connected  with  the  same  main  chimney,  we 
shall  find  the  lower  crater  active,  in  all  cases, 
before  the  higher  one  can  be. 

But  here  is  one  crater  which  is  fourteen 
thousand  feet  high,  and  another  crater,  only 
sixteen  miles  away,  which  is  only  four  thousand 
feet  high.  And  this  lower  crater  always  ex- 
hibits some  degree  of  activity.  Its  lakes  and 
pools  of  lava  are  always  liquid  and  in  motion, 
thus  showing,  that  wherever  the  origin  of  their 
volcanic  activity  may  be,  between  it  and  these 
pools  and  lakes  the  communication  is  constant, 
and  the  intermediate  chimney  is  always  filled 
with  liquid  lava.  The  rising  and  falling  of  the 
pools  show  that  there  is  no  impediment  to  the 
freedom  of  its  vertical  movements,  and  there- 


Terrestrial  Changes.  187 

fore,  however  long  the  column  may  be,  it 
moves  freely  throughout  its  whole  extent. 
There  is  nothing,  then,  to  hinder  the  higher 
column  from  exerting  the  whole  force  of  its 
pressure  on  the  lower,  if  they  be  united  at  any 
point.  How  tremendous  must  that  pressure 
be  !  Moreover,  the  history  of  these  two  cra- 
ters shows  that  wherever  the  source  of  their 
respective  streams  of  lava  may  be,  the  opening 
to  the  two  craters  are  ample,  for  the  outpour- 
ings have  been  immense.  Those  great  rivers 
of  lava,  of  which  we  have  just  given  an  ac- 
count, declare  how  ample  were  the  openings 
through  which  they  came  from  the  depths. 

In  view  of  these  facts  we  venture  the  sug- 
gestion that  these  great  craters  cannot  be  con- 
nected at  all.  They  have  not  a  common  or- 
igin. As  two  separate  districts  not  remote 
from  each  other  may  be  underlaid  by  one 
great  coal  field,  as  many  different  shafts  may 
be  sunk,  and  each  district  extensively  under- 
mined and  its  treasures  of  coal  brought  to  the 
surface,  so  we  may  conceive  of  the  same  char- 
acter of  rocks  to  underlie  vast  areas,  and  the 
conditions  necessary  to  chemical  action  therein 
to  be  gradually  prepared  by  the  forces  that  are 


i"88  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

ever  operating  among  elements  and  masses ; 
then  we  shall  have  the  chemical  reactions,  the 
evolution  of  heat,  the  increase  of  chemical  ac- 
tion, and  the  melting  of  the  rocks.  If  water 
be  present  in  quantities  more  than  sufficient  to 
promote  the  chemical  action,  it  may  be  con- 
verted into  •steam  ;  and  if  the  heat  be  sufficient 
to  fuse  metals  the  steam  must  be  superheated, 
and  its  expansive  power  would  be  such  as  to 
cause  fractures  in  the  walls  of  the  concavity, 
which  the  steam  and  gases  must  immediately 
penetrate,  thus  extending  the  theater  of  chem- 
ical action.  And  thus  we  can  conceive  how 
the  upper  portion  of  the  rocky  structure  may 
be  lifted,  and  the  active  forces  advanced,  until 
an  opening  to  the  surface  is  effected.  It  would, 
perhaps,  be  presumptuous  to  say  that  this  prob- 
ably is  the  mode  in  which  volcanoes  have  orig- 
inated. But  certainly  this  seems  more  nearly 
to  satisfy  the  rational  conditions  of  their  for- 
mation than  the  theory  of  a  central  origin.  And 
it  may  be  remarked  that  if  we  find  it  impossi- 
ble to  reconcile  the  action  of  one  volcano  to 
the  theory  of  central  origin — if  we  can  account 
for  it  on  other  principles — then  that  central 
molten  globe  ceases  to  be  a  theoretical  neces- 


Terrestrial  Changes.  189 

sity,  and  it  vanishes  out  of  cosmical  history  as 
one  of  a  congeries  of  assumptions. 

The  characteristic  behavior  of  various  volca- 
noes is  equally  against  that  theory  which  as- 
signs, as  their  cause,  the  constant  contraction 
or  shrinking  of  the  earth's  crust. 

There  is  another  set  of  facts  which  we  ought 
to  take  into  account  in  this  discussion.  Vol- 
canic regions  are  generally  near  the  sea  or 
other  body  of  water.  Between  the  sea  and 
that  subterranean  cavity  in  which  the  volcanic 
materials  are  prepared  there  is  evidently  some 
sort  of  communication,  so  that  the  waters  per- 
colating through  the  rocks  or  following  mi- 
nute channels  furnish  the  moisture  which  is 
requisite  for  the  production  of  chemical  activ- 
ity and  the  supply  of  the  steam  force  which  is 
brought  into  play  at  the  time  of  an  eruption. 
It  is  known,  also,  that  in  volcanic  districts  sub- 
terranean lakes  do  exist,  which  are  filled  with 
fishes.  Sometimes  the  separating  walls  are 
broken  down,  and  the  waters  of  such  a  lake 
are  precipitated  into  the  volcanic  chamber,  and 
the  fish  are  thrown  out  at  the  crater  during  an 
eruption,  the  activity  of  which  is  enhanced  by 
the  waters.  "  So  great  a  quantity  of  these  fish 


190  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

were  ejected  from  the  volcano  of  Imbabura  in 
1691,  that  fevers,  which  prevailed  at  the  period, 
were  attributed  to  the  effluvia  arising  from  the 
putrid  animal  matter." — Lyell. 

Professor  Ehrenberg  has  found  that  "  vol- 
canic products  abound  with  the  flinty  shells  of 
minute  microscopic  animals."  If  this  be  true, 
it  would  imply  that  the  lava  was  once  sed- 
imentary rock,  in  which  such  minute  animals 
were  imbedded,  and  it  would  utterly  forbid  the 
supposition  that  it  came  from  a  primitive  molt- 
en interior  mass.  For  surely  no  one  will  claim 
that  there  is  any  animal  life  in  that  central 
globe  of  fire. 


The  Moon.  191 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE   MOON. 

Favorably  situated  for  telescopic  observation — Has  the 
moon  an  atmosphere  ? — Or  water  ? — Shape  of  the  moon — Is 
the  moon  a  frozen-up  world  ? 

NEAREST  of  the  heavenly  bodies ;  almost 
equal  in  apparent  magnitude  to  the  sun  ; 
shining  with  pure,  steady,  and  serene  light; 
waxing  and  waning  with  undeviating  regular- 
ity, the  moon  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
objects  of  nocturnal  observation.  Its  mean 
distance  from  the  earth  is  at  present  estimated 
to  be  about  238,800  miles.  Its  diameter  is 
2,162.3  miles.  Its  entire  surface,  therefore,  is 
about  14,500,000  square  miles.  So  near  to  us, 
is  it  strange  that  it  has  been  the  subject  of  in- 
terminable conjecture  and  speculation  ?  Its 
nearness  excites  the  more  persistent  examina- 
tion, because  it  inspires  the  greatest  hopes  of 
arriving  at  certain  knowledge.  These  hopes 
have  been  encouraged  by  another  fact.  The 
same  hemisphere  of  the  moon  is  always  turned 


192  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

toward  the  earth.  So  the  telescopic  observer 
is  able  to  fix  his  attention  on  any  given  spot, 
and  he  knows  that  the  axial  rotation  of  the 
moon  is  not  going  to  slip  that  spot  out  of  his 
view  immediately.  So  long  as  the  moon  itself 
is  in  view  the  spot  he  is  examining  will  remain 
in  view. 

There  is,  however,  one  circumstance  that 
diminishes  our  satisfaction  with  this  situation 
of  things.  "There  is  a  large  area  upon  the 
moon's  surface  that  is  absolutely  unobservable 
by  us.  The  total  area  brought  into  view,  in- 
cluding that  exposed  by  the  moon's  librations, 
does  not  exceed  three  fifths  of  the  whole 
surface. 

Astronomers  have  long  held  that  there  was 
but  little,  if  any,  atmosphere  upon  the  moon. 
They  thought,  however,  that  they  detected  the 
existence  of  extended  seas,  and  lunar  maps 
were  made  on  which  the  seas  were  shown,  with 
names  to  distinguish  them.  When  we  reflect 
that  there  was  supposed  to  be  no  atmosphere, 
and  consequently  there  could  be  no  wild  lunar 
storms,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  among  the 
seas  a  Mare  Tranquillitatis  and  a  Mare  Seren- 
itatis. 


The  Moon.  193 

That  the  moon  has  no  atmosphere  has  been 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  a  planet  or  star  in 
occultation  with  the  moon  seemed  to  pass  out 
of  sight  instantly,  as  it  would  not  do  if  there 
were  an  atmosphere  to  refract  its  light.  Airy 
has  shown  that  if  there  be  a  lunar  atmosphere 
its  refractive  power  cannot  exceed  -$^-5  part  of 
that  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  earth. 

Sir  William  Herschell  gave  this  subject  spe- 
cial attention.  On  the  5th  of  September,  1793, 
during  a  solar  eclipse,  he  observed  with  great 
care  the  acute  horn  resulting  from  the  inter- 
section of  the  limbs  of  the  sun  and  the  moon. 
"  His  deduction,  from  his  observations,  was, 
that  if  there  had  been  a  deviation  of  one  sec- 
ond, caused  by  the  refraction  of  the  solar  light 
by  a  lunar  atmosphere,  it  would  not  have 
escaped  him." 

Spectrum  analysis  has  also  been  directed  to 
the  determination  of  this  question.  Fraun- 
hofer,  Brewster,  Huggins,  Gladstone,  Miller, 
Jansen,  and  others  have  respectively  made  it 
the  subject  of  study.  "  From  the  entire  ab- 
sence of  any  special  absorption  lines,"  Schellen 
says,  "  it  must  be  concluded  that  there  is  no 
atmosphere  in  the  moon." 
13 


194  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

With  the  conviction  that  the  moon  is  desti- 
tute of  an  atmosphere,  there  has  also  come  a 
general  conviction  that  there  are  no  bodies  of 
water  on  the  moon,  and  those  areas,  which 
were  formerly  supposed  to  be  seas,  are  now 
supposed  to  be  sandy  plains.  Some  think  that 
they  retain  the  marks  of  former  sea  bottoms ; 
some  see  in  them  the  evidences  of  aerial  action, 
and  they  fancy  that  there  once  existed  both 
air  and  water  on  the  moon.  Some  account  for 
the  disappearance  of  the  water  by  supposing 
that  the  volcanic  agencies  produced  such  im- 
mense subterraneous  caverns  that  the  waters 
all  drained  off  into  them ;  but  Winchell  sup- 
poses the  rocks  to  have  literally  absorbed 
them,  together  with  the  atmosphere. 

We  are  not  writing  a  lunar  history,  and 
therefore  it  is  all  one  to  us  whether  there  be  a 
lunar  atmosphere  and  lunar  seas  or  not.  We 
have  no  theory  that  requires  the  assumption 
that  they  did  once  exist,  and  which,  if  they  are 
found  not  to  exist  at  the  present  time,  must 
account  for  their  disappearance. 

But  the  moon  is,  in  the  nebular  theory,  a 
representative  body.  It  represents  the  "  Lu- 
nar Stage,"  that  is,  the  stage  of  final  refriger- 


The  Moon.  195 

ation,  and  what  the  moon  now  is,  that  the 
earth,  the  planets,  and  the  sun  are  destined  to 
become. 

Leaving  for  a  moment  the  question  of  the 
physical  condition  of  the  moon  as  an  unsettled 
question,  which  it  is,  we  remark  that  the  moon 
performs  an  important  office  in  its  effects  on 
terrestrial  economy.  Perhaps  no  one  can  ap- 
preciate at  its  real  value  the  benefit  to  all  ter- 
restrial life  of  that  tidal  movement  whose 
efficient  cause  is  the  lunar  attraction. 

But  to  return,  the  advocates  of  the  nebular 
theory  point  us  to  evidences  of  great  volcanic 
activity  on  the  moon  during  some  periods  of 
its  history.  And  no  one  can  deny  that  there 
is  the  appearance  on  the  hither  hemisphere 
of  the  moon  of  such  activity.  Steep  precipices ; 
lofty  rocky  mountains,  unrelieved  by  vegeta- 
tion; extensive  parks  of  barren  sand,  sur- 
rounded by  rugged  ridges  of  naked  rocks ; 
great  cavities,  not  unlike  some  of  the  extinct 
craters  of  the  earth,  combine  to  make  upon  us 
the  impression  that  we  have  before  us  a  scene 
of  absolute  desolation. 

But  no  volcanoes  are  found  at  present  in 
action.  Sir  William  Herschell  thought  at  one 


196  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

time  that  he  had  seen  an  eruption  of  a  lunar 
volcano,  but  Arago  expresses  strong  doubts 
of  the  reality  of  the  eruption.  We  think  it 
quite  probable  that  no  active  volcano  exists 
on  the  hither  side  of  the  moon.  Here,  now, 
are  three  facts — at  least  they  are  supposed  to 
be  facts :  there  is  no  atmosphere  in  the 
moon,  there  is  no  water  in  the  moon,  there 
is  no  volcanic  activity  in  the  moon. 

From  these  three  facts  the  nebular  theory  is 
supposed  to  have  strong  confirmation,  and  the 
lunar  history  is  readily  written  as  follows : — 

The  moon  was  detached  from  the  earth 
while  it  was  an  aeriform  body.  Being  a  very 
small  body  it  rapidly  cooled  off  and  contracted, 
and  its  elements  combined ;  it  became  liquid, 
and  a  crust  was  formed  upon  it ;  and  there 
was  an  atmosphere  ;  and  there  were  seas ;  and 
subsequently  there  were  great  convulsions ; 
the  internal  fires  generated  forces  that  lifted 
portions  of  the  crust,  or  broke  through  as  vol- 
canoes. All  these  changes  occurred  with  great 
rapidity  compared  with  the  corresponding 
changes  in  the  earth,  because  the  moon  is  so 
small.  At  length  the  lunar  fires  burned  quite 
out,  the  volcanic  activity  ceased.  At  one 


Tlie  Moon.  197 

time  there  was  life  on  the  moon.  The  lunar 
seas  were  full  of  lunar  fishes,  the  lunar  air  was 
cleft  by  wings  of  lunar  birds,  the  lunar  forests 
were  thronged  by  lunar  beasts.  Then,  too, 
some  higher  type  of  being,  answering  to  that 
of  man  on  the  earth,  reigned  over  all  the  lunar 
realms.  But  that  was  in  the  long,  long  ago. 

The  historic  periods  succeeded  each  other 
rapidly.  The  internal  fires  were  spent.  The 
whole  mass  became  solid.  The  solid  structure 
became  gradually  chilled.  The  rocks  eagerly 
drank  up  the  water,  and,  still  unsatisfied,  ab- 
sorbed the  atmosphere,  and  now  the  heat  is 
quite  exhausted.  All  life  has  become  extinct. 
The  moon  is  a  frozen  world,  and  it  hangs  in 
the  heavens  an  impressive  example  of  a  single 
stage  of  planetary  history. 

As  the  rings  of  Saturn  were  an  example  and 
a  demonstration  of  the  ring  stage  of  planetary 
evolution,  so  the  frozen-up  moon  is  an  exam- 
ple and  a  demonstration  of  planetary  congela- 
tion ;  and  it  follows  that  all  planetary  history 
begins  in  fire-mist,  passes  through  successive 
stages  of  cooling,  contracting,  solidifying,  con- 
vulsing, renewing,  etc.,  until  the  end  shall 
come  in  a  universal  waste  of  frozen,  desolate, 


198  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

wandering  spheres,  wrapped  in  the  darkness  of 
eternal  night,  the  sun  itself  shrunken  and 
frozen. 

Such  may  be  the  end  foreshadowed.  And 
it  is  not  the  province  of  true  science  to  shed 
tears  over  the  foreseen  catastrophe.  It  is  only 
her  province  to  take  the  facts  of  history,  as  the 
great  plan  of  nature  is  unfolded,  and  interpret 
them  on  known  natural  principles.  And  yet 
the  generalizations  of  science  should  not  be 
too  precipitate.  Moderation  and  self-distrust 
are  as  likely  to  be  needed  here  as  in  any  sphere 
of  scientific  inquiry.  What  we  know,  not  what 
we  imagine  or  what  we  conjecture,  should  be 
the  basis  of  our  generalization.  Do  we  know 
enough  about  the  moon  to  pronounce  pos- 
itively as  to  its  physical  condition  ?  Do  we 
know  that  it  is  frozen  up  ?  Do  we  know  that 
there  is  neither  air  nor  water  on  the  moon  ? 
True,  we  see  no  signs  of  air  on  the  hither  hem- 
isphere. No  clouds  float  across  its  disk.  And 
both  the  telescope  and  the  spectroscope  fail  to 
find  any  indications  of  an  atmosphere.  But  let 
us  not  forget  that  there  are  about  six  millions 
of  square  miles  of  lunar  surface  that  we  have 
not  examined,  and  cannot  examine  with  the 


The  Moon.  199 

telescope  or  spectroscope.  Who  can  tell  what 
is  there  out  of  sight  ?  Is  there  any  means  by 
which  we  can  arrive  at  the  probabilities  in  the 
case  ?  It  may  be  said  that  the  probabilities 
are  just  what  the  general  opinion  of  scientists 
is,  and  the  general  opinion  is  that  there  is  no 
atmosphere  and  no  water  on  the  moon. 

And  there  is  weight  in  this  fact,  for  it  is  to 
be  presumed  that  scientists  will  not  commit 
themselves  to  an  opinion  which  has  not  a 
high  degree  of  probability.  But  it  will  not  be 
considered  disrespectful  to  re-open  the  ques- 
tion. The  inaccessibility  of  the  farther  lunar 
hemisphere  is  itself  a  factor  to  be  considered 
in  the  solution  of  this  problem.  Why  can  we 
not  observe  that  hemisphere  ?  Why  is  it  al- 
ways turned  away  from  us?  Evidently  be- 
cause the  moon  is  not  balanced  upon  its  own 
center.  The  hemisphere  of  greater  density  is 
toward  the  earth,  and  the  earth  holds  it  there, 
(not  exactly  steadily,  for  it  has  its  librations,) 
and  it  cannot  change  its  relations. 

The  hemisphere  of  lesser  density,  then,  is 
out  of  sight.  Now  let  us  consider  the  effect 
of  the  moon's  motion  on  the  moon's  form. 
We  agree  that  the  form  of  each  of  the  planet- 


200  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

ary  bodies  is  affected  by  its  axial  rotation. 
The  effect  on  the  earth  has  been  to  give  it  an 
oblateness  of  TJT  ;  on  Mars,  to  give  it  an  oblate- 
ness  of  ^V  !  °n  Jupiter,  to  give  it  an  oblateness 
of  Jy ;  and  on  Saturn,  to  give  it  an  oblateness 
of  TV-  But  is  any  such  effect  possible  to  the 
moon  ?  We  venture  to  express  the  convic- 
tion that  it  is  not.  The  moon,  then,  cannot  be 
an  oblate  spheroid. 

Why  do  we  come  to  this  conclusion?  Be- 
cause of  the  moon's  diurnal  motion.  The 
moon  does  not  revolve  upon  its  own  axis  as 
the  earth  does  and  as  other  planets  do.  The 
earth  is  the  center  of  its  diurnal  rotation.  If 
an  artificial  globe  be  firmly  fixed  to  the  end  of 
an  arm  which  moves  around  a  fixed  point,  it 
will  fairly  represent  the  moon's  motion.  Is 
there  any  centrifugal  force  generated?  Yes. 
What  effect  will  it  have  on  the  moon  ?  It  will 
cause  it  to  tend  to  fly  off  bodily  from  the  cen- 
ter. Will  it  affect  its  form?  If  it  does,  it 
must  raise  its  outer  hemisphere,  and  give  to  the 
body  an  oval  or  ovate  form.  The  form,  we 
think,  must  be  ovate.  If  any  fluid  matter 
does  exist  on  the  moon,  this  motion  of  the 
body  must  necessarily  throw  it  to  or  toward 


The  Moon.  201 

the  other  side.  We  are  not  certain  that  this 
would  not  be  the  case  if  we  should  consider 
the  moon  a  solid  body  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
crust  of  the  earth  is  a  solid  body.  For  in  this 
solid  crust  are  cavities,  and  seams,  and  chan- 
nels, in  which  water  may  be,  and  through 
which  it  may  pass. 

Suppose,  then,  that  the  whole  earth  be 
thus  solid,  and  that  its  axial  rotation  be 
arrested,  and  it  go  on  in  its  orbit  as  usual. 
Would  not  all  the  oceans  be  piled  up  on  one 
side,  and  that  the  side  opposite  to  the  sun? 
And  all  the  water  that  was  land-locked,  so 
that  it  could  not  pass  over,  would  gradually 
strain  through  to,  or  toward,  that  other  side. 
Take  a  sponge  and  attach  it  to  a  revolving 
arm — will  not  the  moisture  all  collect  at  that 
side  which  is  most  distant  from  the  center  of 
rotation,  provided  the  rotation  be  sufficiently 
rapid  ?  Just  so,  if  there  be  any  atmosphere 
and  any  water  on  the  moon,  the  effect  of  this 
known  motion  of  the  moon  must  be  to  gather 
all  the  surface-water  and  most  of  the  air  to 
that  farther  side  which  is  inaccessible  to  our 
observation.  We  say  most  of  the  air,  because 
we  conceive  that  the  expansibility  of  air  would 


202  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

probably  cause  it  to  extend  over  the  whole 
surface,  but  not  of  equal  depths. 

This  supposition  as  to  the  waters  of  the 
moon  does  not  exclude  the  possibility  of  vol- 
canic action  on  the  hither  lunar  hemisphere. 
If  volcanoes  originate  in  the  chemical  changes 
which  may  take  place  in  the  rocks,  such 
changes  may  be  supposed  to  have  been  in 
progress  for  ages,  and  the  absence  of  such 
agencies  as  are  so  powerful  on  the  earth  in 
modifying  the  surface  appearance  (the  aque- 
ous and  aerial  agencies)  would  have  the  effect 
to  leave  the  volcanic  chasms,  and  ridges,  and 
rents  just  as  the  volcanic  action  itself  shaped 
them,  and  we,  who  look  down  into  the  awful 
depths  of  those  craters,  behold  them  just  as 
they  were  left  by  the  receding  fires. 

On  the  earth  heat,  cold,  moisture,  and 
the  force  of  the  wind,  destroy  the  original 
ruggedness  of  terrestrial  mountains.  In  the 
absence  of  water  and  air  the  alternations  of 
.temperature  and  cold  would  affect  them  but 
slightly. 

It  may  be  said  that  these  thoughts  touch- 
ing a  possible  condition  of  the  moon  are 
but  speculative.  True ;  and  so,  too,  the 


T}u  Moon.  203 

theory  which  represents  the  moon  as  "a 
fossil  world,  an  ancient  cinder,"  is  but  a  spec- 
ulative theory. 

We  do  not  know  that  one  hemisphere  of  the 
moon  has  water  on  its  surface,  but  we  know 
that  with  the  moon's  known  diurnal  motion,  if 
there  be  any  water  on  the  moon,  it  would  find 
that  side  and  would  stay  there.  And  inasmuch 
as  that  is  the  case,  the  blistered,  waterless,  and 
airless  aspects  of  the  hither  hemisphere  are  no 
ground  at  all  for  the  conclusion  that  the 
oceans  and  atmosphere  of  the  moon  are  sucked 
up  by  the  rocks,  and  have  totally  disappeared 
from  the  lunar  surface.  It  certainly  is  not 
demonstrable  that  the  moon  is  a  frozen-up 
world,  having. a  temperature  like  that  which 
prevails  at  the  top  of  the  Himalayas  and  the 
Alps.  Nor  is  it  demonstrable  that  it  is  a  hab- 
itable world.  Our  consideration  of  its  aspects 
and  its  motions  leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that 
it  may  be  habitable,  but  if  so  it  is  only  in  one 
hemisphere,  and  that  the  hemisphere  we  are 
unable  to  observe.  According  to  very  recent 
thermometrical  experiments  the  moon  actually 
does  emit  heat  in  quantities  sufficient  to  pro- 
duce sensible  effects  at  the  distance  of  the 


204  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

earth.  Fourteen  and  a  half  days  of  unclouded 
sunshine  on  the  hither  hemisphere  of  the 
moon,  it  is  now  estimated,  produces  in  it  an 
average  temperature  of  boiling  water.  Cer- 
tainly it  is  not  a  reliable  subject  from  which  to 
deduce  that  portion  of  the  cosmical  history 
which  is  called  "  the  lunar  stage,"  or  stage  of 
final  refrigeration.  Fourteen  and  a  half  days 
of  continual  sunshine  would  also  cause  the 
waters  of  the  farther  hemisphere  to  evaporate 
rapidly,  and  we  can  imagine  dense  clouds 
forming  and  protecting  that  hemisphere  from 
the  heat  of  the  long-continued  day,  and  mit- 
igating the  rigors  of  an  equally  protracted 
night. 

Since  penning  the  foregoing  we  have,  by  a 
happy  chance,  opened  the  "  Annual  of  Scien- 
tific Discovery,"  for  1858,  to  the  following 
interesting  account  of  the  occultation  of  Ju- 
piter by  the  moon,  which  occurred  on  the  2d 
of  January,  1857.  We  quote  a  portion  only  of 
the  article : — 

"  But  the  most  interesting  fact  yet  remains 
to  be  told.  The  bright  border  of  the  moon  at 
this  time  crossed  the  soft  green  face  of  the 
planet,  not  with  a  clear,  sharply-cu-t  outline, 


The  Moon.  205 

like  that  which  had  been  presented  as  the  disc, 
passed  into  concealment ;  it  was  fringed  by  a 
streak  or  band  of  graduated  shadow,  commenc- 
ing at  the  moon's  edge  as  a  deep-black  line, 
and  being  then  stippled  off  outwardly  until  it 
dissolved  away  in  the  green  light  of  the  plan- 
et's face.  This  shade-band  was  about  a  tenth 
part  of  the  planet's  disc  broad,  and  of  equal 
breadth  from  end  to  end.  Mr.  Lassell  de- 
scribed it  as  offering  to  his  practiced  eye  pre- 
cisely the  same  appearance  the  obscure  ring  of 
Saturn  presents  to  a  higher  magnifying  power 
where  that  appendage  crosses  in  front  of  the 
body  of  the  Saturnian  sphere.  There  could 
be  no  mistake  concerning  the  actual  existence 
of  this  curious  and  unexpected  apparition.  It 
was  independently  noticed  and  described  by 
at  least  six  trustworthy  observers,  and  the 
descriptions  of  it,  given  by  each  of  these,  cor- 
responded with  the  minutest  accuracy.  The 
shadow  was  seen  and  described  by  Mr.  Lassell, 
at  Liverpool;  by  the  Rev.  Professor  Challis, 
at  the  Observatory  at  Cambridge;  by  the  Rev. 
W.  R.  Dawes,  at  Wateringbury ;  by  Dr.  Mann 
and  Captain  Swingburne,  at  Ventnor  ;  and  by 
Mr.  William  Simms,  at  Carshalton.  It  there- 


206  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

fore  only  needs  that  the  unusual  presence 
should  be  accounted  for;  the  handwriting 
being  there,  the  question  remains  to  be  an- 
swered, '  Can  its  interpretation  be  found  ? ' 
Can  science  read  the  meaning  of  this  shadow- 
fringe  inscription  ?  Are  there  minds  that  can 
fathom,  as  well  as  eyes  that  could  catch,  this 
signal  hint  thrown  out  by  Jupiter  at  the  in- 
stant of  its  emergence  from  its  forced  conceal- 
ment behind  the  moon  ? 

"  It  was  Mr.  Dawes's  impression,  on  the  in- 
stant, that  the  mysterious  shadow  was  simply 
an  optical  spectrum,  a  deep,  blue  fringe  to  the 
light  haze  caused  by  the  object-glass  of  his  tel- 
escope having  been  accidentally  over-corrected 
for  one  of  the  irregularities  incident  to  chro- 
matic refraction.  This  notion,  of  course, 
became  altogether  untenable  so  soon  as  it 
was  known  that  the  same  appearance  had 
been  noted  by  other  telescopes  in  which 
the  same  incidental  imperfection  had  had  no 
place.  All  felt  that  the  shadow  could  not  be 
referred  to  a  regular  atmospheric  investment 
of  the  moon's  solid  sphere,  because,  under 
such  circumstances,  the  streak  should  have 
always  been  seen  when  the  rim  of  the  moon 


The  Moon.  207 

rested   in    a   similar   way   across  a  planetary 
disc. 

"  The  sagacious  Plumian,  professor  of  astron- 
omy at  Cambridge,  Professor  Challis,  seems  to 
have  been  the  first  to  hit  upon  the  true  inter- 
pretation of  the  riddle.  The  indefatigable 
star-seer  has  long  suspected  that  the  broad, 
dark  patches  of  the  lunar  surface — the  seas  of 
the  old  selenographists — are  really  shallow  ba- 
sins, filled  with  a  sediment  of  vapor  which  has 
settled  down  into  those  depressions;  in  other 
words,  he  conceived  that  there  are  fog  seas, 
although  there  are  no  water  seas,  in  the  moon. 
The  general  surface  and  higher  projections  of 
the  lunar  spheroid  are  altogether  uncovered 
and  bare ;  but  vapors  and  mists  have  rolled 
down  into  the  lower  regions  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities to  fill  up  the  basin-like  hollows  exactly 
as  water  has  gravitated  into  the  beds  of  the 
terrestrial  oceans.  The  professor,  using  the 
high  powers  of  the  magnificent  telescope  fur- 
nished to  the  Cambridge  Observatory  by  the 
munificence  of  the  late  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land, was  able  to  satisfy  himself  that  the  planet 
actually  did  come  out  from  behind  a  widely- 
gaping  hollow  of  the  moon's  surface  at  the 


2o8  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

bottom  of  a  lunar  fog  sea,  seen  edgewise,  so  to 
speak.  If  a  shallow  basin  extended  for  some 
distance  round  the  curvature  of  the  lunar 
spheroid,  and  if  it  were  filled  up  with  vapor, 
that  vapor  would  rest  at  a  fixed  level,  exactly 
after  the  manner  of  a  collection  of  liquid,  and 
such  fixed  level  would  be  concentric  with  the 
general  spheroidal  curvature  of  the  satellite. 
Under  such  an  arrangement  there  would,  there- 
fore, necessarily  be  a  bulging  protuberance  of 
the  vapor-surface  through  which  a  remote  lu- 
minary might  be  seen  when  it  rested  in  the 
requisite  position.  This,  then,  is  Professor 
Challis's  understanding  of  Jupiter's  hint.  The 
moon  has  fog  seas  upon  her  surface,  and  the 
band  of  shadow  visible  upon  the  face  of  Jupiter, 
as  the  planet  came  out  from  behind  the  earth's 
satellite,  was  a  thin  upper  slice  of  one  of  those 
fog  seas  seen  by  the  favorable  accident  of  the 
planet's  light  shining  for  the  instant  from 
beyond." 

We  reproduce  this  for  this  purpose  only,  to 
show  by  it  how  little  ground  there  is  to  pro- 
nounce dogmatically,  as  Professor  Winchell 
does,  that  "the  moon  is  a  fossil  world,  an 
ancient  cinder,"  etc.,  exemplifying  an  extreme 


The  Moon.  209 

state  of  refrigeration  to  which  all  planeta- 
ry bodies  and  the  sun  itself  are  finally  to 
come. 

So   far  as  our  knowledge  of  that   satellite 

goes,  it  authorizes  no  such  conclusion. 
14 


2io          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  SUN. 

Its  volume — Density — Temperature — Relation  to  the  plan- 
ets— Nebular  theory  applied  to  the  sun — Material  constit- 
uents— Origin  of  the  Sun's  heat — Theory  of  Helmholtz — 
Theory  of  Mayer— Views  of  Winchell. 

THE  sun  is  in  all  respects  the  most  impor- 
tant body  in  the  solar  system.  We  have 
given  it  some  general  consideration,  but  it  de- 
mands more  particular  and  extended  examin- 
ation. We  now  propose  to  group  together  the 
principal  facts  that  are  known  respecting  this 
great  luminary,  and  then  proceed  to  an  exam- 
ination of  the  theoretical  inferences  drawn 
from  these  facts. 

The  magnitude  of  the  sun  is  amazing.  Tak- 
ing the  volume  of  the  earth  as  unity,  that  of 
the  sun  is  about  one  million  two  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand.  Conceive  of  the  sun  as  a  hol- 
low sphere,  with  the  earth  in  its  center,  then 
the  moon  might  revolve  around  the  earth  at  its 
present  distance,  midway  between  the  earth 


The  Sun.  211 

and  the  solar  shell.  Were  all  the  planets 
united  in  one  body,  without  any  change  of 
density,  the  sun  would  equal  five  hundred  such 
bodies.  But  if  all  the  planetary  bodies  could 
be  reduced  to  a  common  density,  the  density 
of  the  sun  itself,  and  united  in  one  body,  then 
the  sun  would  equal  seven  hundred  such 
bodies. 

Vast  as  the  magnitude  of  the  sun  is,  how- 
ever, it  would  require  three  hundred  and  forty 
billions  of  such  magnitudes  to  equal  that  of  the 
original  cosmical  mass  of  the  nebular  theory 
at  the  period  when  Neptune  was  separated 
from  the  parent  mass ;  and  we  shall  be  pre- 
pared by  this  fact  to  contemplate  the  sun's 
present  magnitude  without  extravagant  emo- 
tions. The  sun  is  a  self-luminous  body,  and 
is  the  source  of  light  and  heat  to  the  entire 
planetary  system.  The  physical  constitution 
of  the  sun  has  been  the  subject  of  infinite 
speculation.  That  it  is  a  material  body,  hav- 
ing a  specific  gravity  about  one  fourth  that  of 
the  earth,  that  its  gravitative  force  acts  on  all 
planetary  matter,  and  that  it  binds  the  planets 
and  satellites  and  asteroids  together  in  one 
great  system,  are  facts  which  have  long  been 


212  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

established.  And  it  was  only  natural  to  con- 
jecture that  the  material  elements  of  the  sun 
and  the  material  elements  of  the  planets  were 
as  kindred  in  character  as  were  the  forces  that 
were  known  to  be  active  between  them. 

Men  who  have  reflected  were  not,  therefore, 
startled  into  inordinate  raptures  when  that 
wonderful  little  instrument,  the  spectroscope, 
announced  positively  and  authoritatively  that 
the  sun  surely  contains  many  of  the  very  same 
elements  contained  by  the  earth.  This  is  only 
what  men  have  believed  to  be  true  for  ages. 
There  may  be  elements  in  the  earth  yet  un- 
known to  science ;  and  there  may  be  elements 
in  the  sun  that  are  not  present  in  the  earth  ; 
and  there  may  be  elements  in  the  stars  that 
are  not  in  either  the  sun  or  the  earth,  nor  yet 
in  any  of  the  planets.  Certain  it  is  that  there 
are  spectra  which  the  most  eminent  and  skill- 
ful spectroscopists  are  unable  to  refer  to  any 
known  element. 

But  the  majority  of  the  elements  may  be 
common  to  all  suns  and  planets,  the  quantities 
of  each  being  distributed  with  reference  to  the 
office  which  each  body  has  to  perform  in  the 
great  system  of  nature.  The  physical  consti- 


The  Sun.  213 

tution  and  condition  of  the  sun,  therefore, 
may  be  presumed  to  be  exactly  what  its  rela- 
tion to  all  the  planetary  bodies  requires.  Be- 
tween the  sun  and  those  bodies  are  vast  spaces, 
yet  not  so  vast  as  at  all  to  embarrass  the  force 
by  which  they  are  bound  together,  or  to  hin- 
der the  efficiency  of  that  solar  influence  which 
enlightens  and  warms  them.  Such  reflections, 
though  concurred  in  by  the  physicist  and 
astronomer,  do  not  satisfy  them.  They  would 
like  to  know  the  exact  structure  of  the  sun, 
the  condition  of  its  matter,  the  nature  of  the 
solar  spots,  the  origin  of  its  light.  Why  is  the 
sun  self-luminous  ?  How  does  it  generate  its 
heat  ?  A  thousand  questions  have  been  raised, 
and  men  have  been  ready  with  answers.  And 
yet  the  questions  are  as  far  from  being  wholly 
satisfied  as  ever. 

So  long  ago  as  1769  Dr.  Wilson,  of  Glas- 
gow, suggested  that  the  sun  might  be  an 
opaque  body,  surrounded  by  a  luminous  at- 
mosphere. Sir  William  Herschell,  in  1795, 
declared  himself  convinced  that  the  light-giv- 
ing substance  of  the  sun  was  neither  liquid 
nor  elastic  fluid,  but  something  analogous  to 
our  clouds,  and  that  it  floated  in  the  trans- 


214  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

parent  atmosphere  of  that  luminary.  He  con- 
ceived that  there  were  two  atmospheres,  en- 
dowed with  separate  and  independent  motions. 
The  solar  spots  were  openings  in  the  luminous 
atmosphere,  through  which  the  dark  body  of 
the  sun  could  be  seen.  Sir  David  Brewster 
thought  that  the  non^luminous  rays  that  are 
found  in  solar  light  might  have  been  emitted 
by  the  dark  body  of  the  sun,  and  the  luminous 
rays  have  been  emitted  by  the  luminous  mat- 
ter. "  With  this  hypothesis,"  says  Sir  David, 
"  we  could  readily  explain  why  it  is  hottest 
when  there  are  most  spots,  because  the  heat 
of  the  nucleus  would  then  reach  us  without 
having  been  weakened  by  the  atmosphere  that 
it  usually  has  to  traverse."  But  so  far  as  we 
know,  it  is  not  "  hottest  when  there  are  most 
spots." 

Other  astronomers  have  suggested  the  ex- 
istence of  a  third  atmosphere,  non-luminous 
and  transparent,  as  indicated  by  the  diminished 
brightness  of  the  sun's  disk  toward  the  edges. 
In  our  times  the  solar  light  serves  the  cause 
of  science  in  ways  of  which  the  ancients  did 
not  so  much  as  dream.  Photography  assists 
the  celestial  explorer  by  catching  the  image 


The  Sun.  215 

of  the  celestial  body,  and  fixing  it  for  his  delib- 
erate examination.  Thus  the  solar  spots  and 
protuberances  have  been  subjected  to  a  scru- 
tiny which  was  impossible  to  simple  telescopic 
observation. 

The  spectroscope,  also,  has  greatly  enlarged 
the  boundaries  of  our  knowledge  of  solar  af- 
fairs, although  it  must  be  confessed  that  dis- 
tinguished spectroscopists  are  not  fully  agreed 
respecting  the  constitution  of  the  sun.  Kirch- 
hoff  's  theory  is,  however,  generally  accepted. 
We  take  the  liberty  to  quote  the  following 
from  Schellen : — 

"  According  to  Kirchhoff  the  sun  consists  of 
a  solid  or  partially  liquid  nucleus  in  the  high- 
est state  of  incandescence,  which  emits,  like  all 
incandescent  bodies,  every  possible  kind  of 
light,  and,  therefore,  would  of  itself  give  a  con- 
tinuous spectrum  without  any  dark  lines.  This 
incandescent  central  nucleus  is  surrounded  by 
an  atmosphere  of  lower  temperature,  contain- 
ing, on  account  of  the  extreme  heat  of  the  nu- 
cleus, the  vapors  of  many  of  the  substances  of 
which  this  body  is  composed.  The  rays  of 
light,  therefore,  emitted  by  the  nucleus,  must 
pass  through  this  atmosphere  before  reaching 


216  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

the  earth,  and  each  vapor  extinguishes  from 
the  white  light  those  rays  which  it  would  itself 
emit  in  a  glowing  state.  Now  it  is  found, 
when  the  sun's  light  is  analyzed  by  a  prism, 
that  a  multitude  of  rays  are  extinguished,  and 
just  those  rays  which  would  be  emitted  by  the 
vapors  of  sodium,  iron,  calcium,  magnesium, 
etc.,  were  they  made  self-luminous ;  conse- 
quently the  vapors  of  the  following  substances, 
sodium,  iron,  potassium,  calcium,  barium,  mag- 
nesium, manganese,  titanium,  chromium,  nick- 
el, cobalt,  hydrogen,  and,  probably,  also  zinc, 
copper,  and  gold,  must  exist  in  the  solar  at- 
mosphere, and  these  metals  must  also  be  present 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  body  of  the  sun." 

Kirchhoff  explains  the  solar  spots  on  the 
supposition  that  they  are  cloud-like  masses  of 
condensed  vapor  floating  in  the  solar  atmos- 
phere, and  intercepting  the  rays  of  light  that 
proceed  from  the  incandescent  nucleus. 

Faye,  on  the  other  hand,  supposes  the  act- 
ual nucleus  of  the  sun  to  be  a  non-luminous 
globe  of  gas,  and  the  solar  spots  to  be  huge 
rents  or  openings  through  the  luminous  envel- 
ope, which  is  called  the  photosphere. 

Here  are  three  theories  of  the  solar  constitu- 


The  Sun.  217 

tion.  Could  we  believe  with  Wilson  and  Her- 
schell,  we  might  imagine  the  sun  a  very  de- 
lightful residence  ;  its  dark  central  body  vari- 
egated by  mountains  and  valleys,  oceans,  seas, 
lakes,  and  rivers,  continents  and  islands,  in  in- 
finite variety ;  with  an  equable  and  constant 
climate,  no  tropical  heats  and  polar  frosts,  but 
a  uniformly  pleasant  and  fruitful  season,  con- 
tinuing forever ;  no  night,  but  one  unchang- 
ing day,  while  its  luminous  atmosphere,  thou- 
sands of  miles  away,  filters  its  light  and  heat 
down  through  the  lower  atmosphere  upon  the 
whole  solar  body  alike. 

But  Kirchhoff  dispels  the  happy  illusion, 
and  turns  our  continents  into  white-hot  liquids 
or  solids,  while  Faye  turns  the  solids  and 
liquids  into  gas.  We  will  be  excused  from  a 
residence  in  the  sun,  if  you  please. 

Later  experiments  than  those  upon  which 
Kirchhoff  based  his  theory,  have  shown  that 
conditions  of  temperature  and  pressure  may 
exist  under  which  gases  will  give  unbroken 
spectra,  just  as  incandescent  solids  and  liquids 
do ;  and  so  it  may  be  that  the  light  transmit- 
ted from  the  sun  is  not  from  a  solid  or  liquid 
incandescent  body. 


218  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

That  distinguished  Italian  spectroscopist, 
Sechi,  thinks  that  there  exists  aqueous  vapor  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  large  spots. 

In  1868  the  French  astronomer,  Janssen, 
while  watching  the  total  eclipse  of  the  sun 
from  a  station  in  India,  noticed  that  the  solar 
prominences  gave  a  spectrum  of  three  bright 
lines,  indicating  that  the  prominences  were 
vast  columns  of  incandescent  hydrogen. 

Lockyer,  in  England,  had  already  noticed 
the  same  phenomenon  without  the  eclipse. 
He  gives  the  following  views,  deduced  from 
his  observations  :  "  Now  these  again  are  facts 
which  bear  upon  the  sun's  condition  in  a  very 
great  degree ;  indeed,  they  lead  us  necessarily  to 
several  important  modifications  of  the  received 
theory  of  the  physical  constitution  of  our  cen- 
tral luminary ;  the  theory  which  we  owe  to 
Kirchhoff,  who  based  it  upon  his  examination 
of  the  solar  spectrum.  According  to  his 
idea  the  photosphere  itself  is  either  solid  or 
liquid,  and  is  surrounded  by  an  extensive  non- 
luminous  atmosphere,  composed  of  gases  and 
the  vapors  of  the  substances  incandescent  in 
the  photosphere. 

"  Kirchhoff's   idea    demands    dense   vapors 


The  Sun,  219 

far  above  where  we  have  found  hydrogen  alone, 
and  that  very  rare.  So  that  we  must  consider 
that  the  absorption,  to  which  the  reversal  of 
the  spectrum  and  the  Fraunhofer  lines  are 
due,  takes  place  in  the  photosphere  itself,  or 
extremely  near  to  it,  instead  of  in  an  exten- 
sive outer  absorbing  atmosphere ;  so  that  we 
may  say  that  the  photosphere,  plus  the  chro- 
mosphere, is  the  real  atmosphere  of  the  sun, 
and  that  the  sun  itself  is  in  such  a  state  of 
fervid  heat  that  the  outer  border  of  its  atmos- 
phere, that  is,  the  chromosphere,  is  in  a  state 
of  incandescence." 

Professor  Young,  probably  the  most  distin- 
guished spectroscopist  of  America,  has  sub- 
mitted another  theory.  He  supposes  the 
existence  of  a  liquid  solar  crust,  which  re- 
strains the  gases  for  a  time,  after  which  they 
break  through  in  jets.  M.  Soret  finds,  with 
Lockyer,  that  the  higher  atmosphere  of  the 
sun  consists  of  nothing  but  hydrogen.  This 
certainly  is  a  very  peculiar  condition.  Another 
circumstance  seems  to  us  most  strange,  if  we 
can  trust  the  announcements  of  the  spectro- 
scope. "  The  spectra  of  the  metals,  silver, 
mercury,  antimony,  arsenic,  tin,  lead,  cad- 


22o  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

mium,  strontium,  and  lithium,  show  no  coin- 
cidence with  the  Fraunhofer  lines,  and  this  is 
also  the  case  with  the  two  non-metallic  sub- 
stances, silicen  and  oxygen." — Schellen. 

Is  there,  then,  no  silver,  no  mercury,  no 
oxygen  in  the  sun  ?  So  much  fire  and  no 
oxygen  !  No  combustion  ! 

No  other  single  element  plays  so  important 
a  part  in  the  terrestrial  economy  as  oxygen. 
No  other  has  so  wide  a  range  of  affinity.  All 
the  elements  combine  with  it,  unless  fluorine 
be  an  exception.  Nothing  can  equal  the  inten- 
sity of  its  attractions.  It  is  one  fifth  of  the 
atmosphere.  It  is  three  fourths  of  all  animal 
bodies.  It  constitutes  four  fifths  of  every  veg- 
etable structure.  Eight  ninths  of  the  weight 
of  all  the  water  is  oxygen,  and  it  is,  so  far  as 
man  has  been  able  to  determine,  one  half  of 
the  weight  of  the  entire  globe. 

Now  how  is  it  that  an  element  so  abundant 
in  the  earth,  and  of  such  importance,  is  not 
found  in  the  sun,  if  the  sun  is  but  the  residual 
portion  of  that  cosmical  mass  out  of  which  the 
earth  was  taken  ?  If  one  should  say,  because 
oxygen  is  a  gas  and  being  light,  it  was  more 
easily  cast  off,  we  should  reply,  Why,  then,  do 


The  Stin.  221 

we  still  find  a  stratum  of  hydrogen  of  five  to 
seven  thousand  miles  in  depth  in  the  sun  ?  Is 
not  hydrogen  lighter  than  oxygen  ? 

But  whatever  may  be  the  physical  constitu- 
tion of  the  sun,  it  is  universally  agreed  that  it 
is  the  chief  source  of  light  and  heat,  not  only 
to  the  earth,  but  to  all  other  planetary  bodies. 
Moreover,  it  is  agreed  that  but  a  small  part  of 
the  light  and  heat  radiated  from  the  sun  ever 
reaches  the  planets.  Much  the  larger  portion 
is  dissipated  in  space. 

Conceive  of  a  spherical  shell,  one  hundred 
and  eighty-three  millions  of  miles  in  diameter, 
with  the  sun  at  its  center.  Now  conceive  of  a 
circular  spot  on  the  surface  of  this  shell,  whose 
area  is  equal  to  that  of  a  great  circle  of  the 
earth.  What  is  the  ratio  of  the  area  of  this 
spot  to  that  of  the  sphere  itself?  Such  will 
be  the  ratio  of  the  light  and  heat  received  from 
the  sun  by  the  earth,  to  the  total  radiation 
from  the  sun.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  total  radiation  is  more  than  two  billion 
times  as  much  as  is  received  by  the  earth. 
It  becomes,  therefore,  a  question  of  universal 
interest,  What,  is  the  temperature  of  the  sun  ? 
If  astronomers  and  physicists  have  been  un- 


222  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

able  to  agree  as  to  the  physical  constitution  of 
the  sun,  no  more  are  they  agreed  as  to  its 
temperature. 

There  has  been  no  lack  of  experiments  on 
the  sun's  heat.  Instruments  and  methods  of 
measurement  of  the  most  diverse  character 
have  been  employed.  Estimates  have  been 
based  on  these  experiments,  and  the  result  is, 
the  estimates  are  irreconcilably  discordant. 

Sir  John  Herschell  estimated  that  a  solid 
shaft  of  ice,  forty-five  miles  in  diameter, 
plunged  endwise  into  the  sun  at  the  rate  of 
one  hundred  and  ninety  thousand  miles  per 
second,  would  be  melted  as  fast  as  it  entered. 
Sechi  estimates  the  sun's  temperature  at  two 
million  degrees  centigrade.  Ericsson  places  it 
at  six  million  to  seven  million  degrees.  But 
distinguished  French  physicists  of  the  present 
day  contend  that  it  cannot  exceed  ten  thou- 
sand degrees,  and  think  it  more  likely  that  it 
does  not  exceed  three  thousand  degrees. 

Here  is  a  wide  range  of  opinions  touching 
the  temperature  of  the  sun  —  from  three 
thousand  degrees  to  ten  million  degrees. 
The  utmost  that  is  known  of  this  matter 
is  that  the  sun  is  the  source  of  heat  as 


The  Sun.  223 

well  as  of  light,  and  that  the  heat  is  immeas- 
urable. 


There  is  one  other  solar  problem,  and  in 
some  respects  it  is  the  most  important  of  all. 
We  know  that  the  sun  has  furnished  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  heat  for  long  periods  in  the 
past,  and  that  it  furnishes  a  sufficient  supply 
at  present ;  but  the  question  of  future  supply 
is  one  of  so  much  interest  that  eminent  phys- 
icists have  devoted  considerable  labor  to  the 
settlement  of  it.  But  in  its  settlement  they 
have  proceeded  from  different  premises.  The 
first  question  which  arises  is,  What  keeps  up  the 
solar  temperature  itself? 

Helmholtz  assumes  that  the  whole  of  the 
heat  of  the  sun  arises  from  the  condensation  of 
its  mass.  He  says  :  "  It  may  be  calculated  that 
if  the  diameter  of  the  sun  were  diminished 
only  the  ten  thousandth  part  of  its  present 
length,  by  this  act  a  sufficient  quantity  of  heat 
would  be  generated  to  cover  the  total  omission 
for  two  thousand  one  hundred  years."  Dr. 
Sterry  Hunt  embraces  substantially  the  same 
views.  He  says :  "  The  sun,  then,  is  to  be 
conceived  of  as  an  immense  mass  of  intensely 


224  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

heated  gaseous  and  dissociated  matter,  so  con- 
densed, however,  that,  notwithstanding  its 
excessive  temperature,  it  has  a  specific  grav- 
ity not  much  below  that  of  water,  [but  the 
density  of  the  sun  is  one  and  a  half  that  of 
water,]  probably  offering  a  condition  analogous 
to  that  which  Cagniard  De  La  Tour  observed 
for  volatile  bodies  when  submitted  to  great 
pressure  at  temperatures  much  above  their 
boiling  point.  The  radiation  of  heat  going  on 
from  the  surface  of  such  an  intensely  heated 
mass  of  uncombined  gases  will  produce  a  su- 
perficial cooling,  which  will  permit  the  combi- 
nation of  certain  elements  and  the  production 
of  solid  or  liquid  particles  ;  these,  suspended 
in  the  still  dissociated  vapors,  become  in- 
tensely luminous,  and  form  the  solar  photo- 
sphere. The  condensed  particles  carried  down 
into  the  intensely  heated  mass,  again  meet 
with  a  heat  of  dissociation,  so  that  the  process 
of  combination  at  the  surface  is  -incessantly  re- 
newed, while  the  heat  of  the  sun  may  be  sup- 
posed  to  be  maintained  by  the  slow  condensation 
of  its  mass." 

But  Professor  Winchell  distinctly  repudiates 
the  condensation  theory,  as  follows  :  "  Condcn- 


The  Sun.  225 

sation  through  loss  of  heat  would  create  no  tend- 
ency to  increase  the  temperature,  but  condensa- 
tion through  the  action  of  gravity  would.  The 
latter  cause  of  condensation  could  only  exist  in  a 
mass  of  matter  temporarily  out  of  the  condition 
of  molecular  equilibrium,  and  could  continue 
only  while  it  is  in  the  act  of  adapting  its  molec- 
ular state  to  the  mechanical  forces  acting  upon  it. 
"  We  are  unable  to  state  whether  these 
forces  vary  in  different  regions  and  periods, 
and  hence  cannot  safely  assert  that  every,  or 
any,  nebulous  body  increases  in  temperature 
during  any  period  of  its  history.  //  seems 
more  probable  that  a  continuous  reduction  of 
temperature  is  experienced,  and  that  the  temper- 
ature inherent  in  the  sun  at  the  present  time  is 
rather  the  residuum  of  the  primordial  heat 
than  the  effect  of  the  condensation  of  his 
mass." 

Professors  Young,  Tyndall,  and  others,  ad- 
vocate the  meteoric  theory  of  Mayer,  and  also 
the  condensation  theory  of  Helmholtz.  Pro- 
fessor Young  says :  "  The  proper  view  is  that 
the  heat  is  maintained  by  the  influx  of  mat- 
ter. As  meteors  fall  upon  the  earth,  several 
15 


226  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

millions  in  a  day,  so  they  fall  into  the  sun, 
millions  of  millions  per  day,  and  contribute  to 
the  solar  heat.  But  that  does  not  account  for 
it  all.  Another  cause,  I  doubt  not,  is  the  con- 
traction of  its  volume.  If  the  sun  were  to  con- 
tract one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  in  radius, 
or  two  hundred  and  forty  feet  in  diameter,  in 
a  year,  that  would  account  for  all  the  heat  it 
gives  off." 

The  meteoric  theory  of  Mayer  deserves  a 
fuller  exhibit.  Perhaps  no  clearer  statement 
of  it  has  been  made  than  that  by  Professor 
Thompson,  who  says :  "  In  conclusion,  then, 
the  source  of  energy  from  which  solar  heat  is 
derived  is  undoubtedly  meteoric.  The  prin- 
cipal source,  perhaps  the  sole  appreciable  effi- 
cient source,  is  in  bodies  circulating  round  the 
sun,  at  present  inside  the  earth's  orbit,  in  the 
sunlight  by  us  called  the  zodiacal  light.  The 
store  of  energy  for  future  sunlight  is  at  pres- 
ent partly  dynamical — that  of  the  motions  of 
these  bodies  round  the  sun — and  partly  poten- 
tial— that  of  gravity  toward  the  sun.  This 
latter  is  being  gradually  spent,  half  against  the 
resisting  medium,  and  half  in  causing  a  contin- 
ual increase  of  the  former.  Each  meteor  thus 


TJie  Sun.  227 

goes  on  moving  faster  and  faster,  and  getting 
nearer  and  nearer  the  center,  until  some  time, 
very  suddenly,  it  gets  so  much  entangled  in 
the  solar  atmosphere  as  to  begin  to  lose  veloc- 
ity. In  a  few  seconds  more  it  is  at  rest  on  the 
sun's  surface,  and  the  energy  given  up  is  vi- 
brated across  the  district  where  it  was  gath- 
ered during  so  many  ages,  ultimately  to  pen- 
etrate as  light  the  remotest  regions  of  space. 

Professor  Tyndall,  whether  indorsing  this 
meteoric  theory  directly  or  not,  seems  to  give 
it  countenance,  and,  following  Helmholtz,  gen- 
eralizes in  a  most  fascinating  manner  the 
history  of  the  winding  up  of  planetary  affairs, 
as  follows : — 

"  Solar  light  and  heat  lie  latent  in  the  force 
which  pulls  an  apple  to  the  ground.  The  po- 
tential energy  of  gravitation  was  the  original 
form  of  all  the  energy  in  the  universe.  As 
surely  as  the  weights  of  a  clock  run  down  to 
their  lowest  position,  from  which  they  can 
never  rise  again  unless  fresh  energy  is  commu- 
nicated to  them  from  some  source  not  yet  ex- 
hausted, so  surely  must  planet  after  planet 
creep  in,  age  by  age,  toward  the  sun.  When 


228  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

each  comes  within  a  few  hundred  thousand 
miles  of  his  surface,  if  he  is  still  incandescent, 
it  will  be  melted  and  driven  into  vapor  by  ra- 
diant heat.*  Nor  if  he  be  crusted  over  and 
become  dark  and  cool  externally,  can  the 
doomed  planet  escape  its  fiery  end.  If  it  does 
not  become  incandescent  like  a  shooting  star, 
by  friction  in  its  passage  through  his  atmos- 
phere, its  first  graze  on  his  surface  must  pro- 
duce a  stupendous  flash  of  light  and  heat.  It 
may  be  at  once,  or  it  may  be  after  two  or 
three  bounds,  like  a  cannon  shot  ricochetting 
on  a  surface  of  earth  or  water,  the  whole  mass 
must  be  crushed,  melted,  and  evaporated  by  *a 
crash,  generating  in  a  moment  some  thousand 
times  as  much  heat  as  a  coal  of  the  same  size 
would  produce  by  burning." 

Here  is  utterance  sufficiently  positive.  If 
Tyndall  were  not  a  scientist,  one  might  mis- 
take him  for  a  theologian  of  the  old  dogmatic 
type.  One  can  scarcely  resist  the  impression 

*  Prof.  Tyndall  ought  to  explain  how  the  sun,  which  is  not 
hot  enough  to  be  converted  into  vapor  itself,  can  possibly 
convert  a  planet  into  vapor,  while  the  said  planet  is  yet  "  A 
few  hundred  thousand  miles"  away  from  "his  surface."  Is 
the  radiant  heat  of  the  sun  greater  than  the  resident  heat  of 
the  same  body  ? 


The  Sun.  229 

that  the  school  of  popular  scientists  are  in 
danger  of  becoming  dogmatical,  especially  on 
those  questions  that  transcend  their  analysis. 
It  must  be  evident  that  the  source  of  the 
sun's  heat  remains  as  uncertain  as  ever.  Even 
the  spectroscope,  from  which  more  has  been 
expected  than  from  all  other  instruments, 
gives  us  some  equivocal  answers,  so  that  at 
one  time  we  find  that  the  sun  has  a  solid  or 
liquid  nucleus,  and  at  other  times  we  are  as- 
sured that  it  is  gaseous.  But  neither  spectro- 
scope, telescope,  or  any  other  device,  is  able  to 
inform  us  how  the  solar  energy  is  maintained. 
.Helmholtz,  in  the  elation  of  an  original  thought, 
leaped  to  the  conclusion  that  the  condensation 
of  the  solar  mass  must  maintain  its  temper- 
ature. Tyndall,  with  equal  enthusiasm,  fol- 
lows. Both  see  the  planetary  mechanism  run- 
ning down.  But  Helmholtz  is  far  less  assured 
and  dogmatic  than  his  followers. 

Thompson  pronounces  dogmatically  on  the 
zodiacal  light,  as  if  he  knew  what  the  zo- 
diacal light  is.  It  consists  of  meteors,  he  as- 
sumes, yet  no  astronomer  has  ever  yet  seen 
one  of  these  meteors.  No  perturbations  of 
Venus  or  Mercury  or  our  moon  has  ever  in- 


230  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

formed  us  of  the  existence  of  such  a  belt  of 
meteors  as  is  assumed.  No  one  has  ever  seen 
any  meteoric  body,  great  or  small,  fall  to  the 
sun ;  and  there  are  not  wanting  scientists  of 
sufficient  hardihood  to  explain  the  zodiacal 
light  on  principles  which  locate  it  in  the  earth's 
atmosphere,  just  as  the  rainbow  is  located  on 
the  cloud,  both  being  effects  of  the  reflection 
and  refraction  of  the  sunlight. 

But  what  if  the  zodiacal  light  be  the  reflec- 
tion of  the  sun's  light  from  a  nebulous  ring,  as 
Laplace  supposed,  does  it  follow  that  the  sun 
is  constantly  devouring  that  ring,  and  thus 
maintaining  its  own  heat?  To  us  these  spec- 
ulations seem  idle.  Whence  such  a  ring  ? 
Does  the  cosmical  parent  turn  around  and  be- 
gin to  devour  his  offspring  as  soon  as  it  is 
born? 

But  let  us  return.  It  is  strange  that  the 
advocates  of  the  nebular  hypothesis,  who  are 
so  busy  seeking  out  some  way  of  accounting 
for  the  continued  heat  of  the  sun,  do  not  see 
that  the  original  temperature  of  the  elements 
must  have  been  the  highest  temperature  to 
which  they  have  ever  been  raised  if  the  theory 
be  allowed. 


The  Sun.  231 

How  do  we  know  that?  We  answer:  We 
know  it,  because  the  theory  supposes  all  the 
matter  of  the  solar  system  to  have  been  in  a 
state  of  gas — gas  so  attenuated  that  three  cu- 
bic miles  of  it  would  have  weighed  only  a  sin- 
gle grain.  Now  what  force  can  vaporize  the 
elements  but  heat?  And  what  heat  is  that 
which  can  convert  them  all  into  vapor  ?  Now 
such  a  heat  as  would  not  only  vaporize  all  the 
metals  and  metallic  earths,  but  also  attenuate 
their  vapors  to  such  an  extent,  is  truly  incon- 
ceivable. No  such  temperature  exists  in  the 
solar  system,  or  anywhere  else,  so  far  as  we 
know,  at  the  present  time.  Certainly  no  such 
heat  exists  in  the  sun,  for  the  density  of  that 
body  is  1.5.  How  many  degrees  of  heat  are 
necessary  to  convert  the  mass  of  this  density 
into  such  a  vapor  as  the  original  cosmical  mass 
is  supposed  to  have  been  ?  No  one  can  fail  to 
see  that  Winchell  is  the  only  consistent  theorist 
among  all  that  we  have  collated. 

A  "  primordial  heat,"  adequate  to  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  matter  of  the  solar  system  to 
the  volume  required  by  the  Nebular  Hypoth- 
esis, would  never  need  to  be  increased.  We 
come  to  the  conclusion,  then,  that  if  the  neb- 


232  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

ular  theory  be  accepted,  all  these  theories  of 
heat  generation,  whereby  the  solar  temper- 
ature may  be  maintained,  must  be  laid  aside 
as  irreconcilable  with  that  theory. 

True,  the  theories  themselves  are  undemon- 
strated  and  undemonstrable.  The  only  cer- 
tain thing  about  them,  when  examined  inde- 
pendently, is  their  uncertainty.  But  when 
examined  upon  the  previously  accepted  Neb- 
ular Hypothesis,  they  cease  to  possess  the 
least  credibility.  Let  us,  therefore,  dismiss 
them,  and  consider  the  sun  as  cooling  off.  If 
the  sun  is  cooling  off  and  condensing,  it  must 
be  obedient  to  the  same  law,  in  this  respect,  as 
any  other  of  the  bodies  which  were  once  a  por- 
tion of  its  mass. 

Let  us,  then,  compare  the  sun  with  the 
earth,  and  see  if  we  find  them  obedient  to  the 
same  law,  or  if  they  now  compare  in  the  mat- 
ter of  density  as  they  must  compare  if  the 
theory  be  true. 

At  the  time  that  the  earth-mass  is  supposed 
by  the  theory  to  have  been  detached,  the  cos- 
mical  mass  was  a  body  having  a  diameter  of 
one  hundred  and  eighty-three  millions  of  miles. 
Now,  after  detaching  the  earth,  Venus,  and 


The  Sun.  233 

Mercury,  it  has  shrunken  to  the  diameter  of 
eight  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  miles.  Dur- 
ing that  period  its  density  must  have  become 
— making  no  allowance  for  the  abstraction  of 
Venus  and  Mercury — almost  ten  million  times 
as  great  as  it  was  at  its  beginning,  because  its 
volume  then  was  about  ten  million  times  as 
great  as  its  volume  now  is.  But  the  earth  has 
condensed  three  hundred  and  fifteen  thousand 
times  as  fast  as  the  sun,  because  the  mass  of 
the  sun  is  three  hundred  and  fifteen  thousand 
times  as  great  as  that  of  the  earth.  The  earth, 
then,  must  now  be  many  thousand  times  as 
dense  as  the  sun.  But  it  is  not.  It  is  only 
about  four  times  as  dense  as  the  sun. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  this  is  because  the 
lighter  matter  was  thrown  off  in  the  earth- 
mass,  for  we  know  that  some  of  the  heavier 
elements  which  are  present  in  the  earth  are 
not  detected  in  the  sun,  and  that  the  lightest 
of  all  substances,  hydrogen,  is  abundant  in  the 
sun.  The  relative  densities  of  the  sun  and  the 
earth  are  irreconcilable — so  it  seems  to  us — 
with  the  nebular  theory. 

It  is  conceded  that  there  is  an  outer  atmos- 
phere of  pure  hydrogen  enveloping  the  sun. 


234  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

It  is  also  universally  agreed  that  there  is  a  vi- 
olent agitation  of  the  chromosphere.  Vast 
tongues  of  flame,  many  thousand  miles  high, 
have  been  observed.  How  is  it  possible,  on 
the  principle  of  the  nebular  theory,  that  such 
vast  quantities  (the  hydrogen  is  five  thousand 
to  seven  thousand  miles  in  depth)  have  been 
retained  in  the  sun,  while  many  very  heavy 
substances,  such  as  platinum,  silver,  mercury, 
lead,  tin,  etc.,  were  thrown  off  in  the  terres- 
trial mass?  Tried  by  one  postulate  of  the 
nebular  theory,  the  sun  is  too  light ;  tried  by 
another  postulate  of  the  same  theory,  the  sun 
is  too  heavy.  Will  the  apostles  of  the  theory 
come  to  the  rescue  of  the  sun  ? 


Temperature  of  the  Planets.  235 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  PLANETS. 

I"  T  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  nebular 
•*•  theory  is  set  forth  as  a  history  of  planetary 
existence.  It  not  only  undertakes  to  account 
for  the  origin  of  the  planetary  masses,  but  it 
undertakes  to  explain  the  successive  stages  of 
planetary  being.  Leaving  the  original  cos- 
mical  mass  as  a  peripheral  ring,  each  planetary 
mass  is  supposed  to  have  cooled,  contracted, 
granulated,  and  united  in  one  body,  which,  as- 
suming the  spherical  form,  not  only  revolved 
around  its  original  in  an  orbit,  but  also  re- 
volved on  its  own  axis.  And  as,  in  the  original 
mass,  contraction  by  cooling  produced  an  ac- 
celeration of  the  axial  rotation,  so  in  the  plan- 
etary mass  contraction,  by  cooling,  produced 
an  acceleration  of  the  axial  rotation  until  the 
planetary  mass  was  enabled  to  detach  periph- 
eral rings,  which  became  moons,  and  that  all 
these  bodies  have  gone  on  cooling  and  shrink- 


236  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

ing  until  now.  Now  it  becomes,  at  least,  a 
curious  question,  What  is  the  present  temper- 
ature of  any  one  of  these  planets? 

But  in  its  relation  to  the  credibility  of  the  neb- 
ular theory  this  question  becomes  one  of  very 
grave  importance,  for,  according  to  that  theory, 
five  of  these  bodies  are  examples  of  successive 
stages  of  planetary  history,  and  give  names  to 
those  stages.  If,  then,  it  shall  appear  that  the 
temperature  of  each  of  these  bodies  is  what 
the  theory  assumes  it  to  be,  it  furnishes  very 
strong  confirmation  of  the  theory  as  a  whole. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  shall  appear  that 
these  bodies  do  not  exhibit  the  traces  of  such 
temperatures  as  are  assigned  to  them  respect- 
ively by  the  theory,  then  they  give  no  testi- 
mony in  favor  of  the  theory. 

Let  the  reader  keep  in  mind  the  order  of  the 
history.  The  Saturnian  stage  is  exemplified 
by  the  ring  condition  of  Saturn  ;  the  Jovian 
stage,  by  the  belted  Jupiter;  the  terrestrial 
stage,  by  the  habitable  earth;  the  Martial 
stage,  by  the  post-habitable  Mars ;  and  the 
lunar  stage,  by  the  frozen,  shriveled,  airless, 
and  waterless  moon.  Such  as  these  latter 
planets  are  supposed  to  be,  such  shall  all  other 


Temperature  of  the  Planets.  237 

planets  become,  and  such  shall  even  the  sun 
himself  become  at  last. 

This  is  history.  Moreover,  it  is  the  custom 
of  a  class  of  scientists  to  speak  of  these  things 
as  among  the  established  truths  of  modern 
science.  Saturn,  Jupiter,  Mars,  and  the  moon 
are  represented  as  possessing  certain  physical 
peculiarities  ;  these  peculiarities  are  interpreted 
as  the  evidences  of  different  temperatures,  and 
the  different  temperatures  mark  the  different 
stages  of  world  history.  If  any  one  shall  dis- 
credit this  theory ;  if  he  shall  question  these 
assumed  facts ;  if  he  shall  speak  of  the  possi- 
bility of  different  temperatures  in  different 
planets  without  the  supposition  of  different 
successive  stages  of  planetary  history;  if  he 
shall  set  aside  the  hypothesis  of  original  high 
heat  and  gaseous  condition  of  all  matter,  he 
must  expect  to  be  denied  the  honor  of  scien- 
tific recognition  himself. 

According  to  the  theory,  the  older  the 
planet  the  cooler,  provided  that  volume  be 
equal  to  volume  at  the  time  of  the  formation 
of  each.  If  at  the  time  of  detachment  the 
planetary  masses  be  of  unequal  volume,  then 
the  larger  planet  will  continue  at  a  high  tern- 


238  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

perature  longer  than  the  smaller.  There  is 
another  factor  to  be  considered.  Different 
substances  conduct  heat  away,  or,  in  other 
words,  cool  off,  with  different  degrees  of  rapid- 
ity. The  conducting  power  of  silver  is  one 
hundred,  while  that  of  iron  is  but  twelve. 

Dry  air  is  one  of  the  poorest  conductors. 
But  we  know  that  the  effect  of  heat  on  air  or 
gas  is  such  as  to  throw  it  into  violent  agitation. 
The  heated  portions  are  sent  to  the  surface, 
where  its  expanded  substance  is  brought  into 
contact  with  the  intense  cold,  and  thus  the  fee- 
ble conduction  is  compensated  by  the  process 
of  convection.  Therefore  we  should  conclude 
that  a  spherical  mass  of  gaseous  or  aeriform 
matter,  if  it  were  launched  into  space  at  a  high 
temperature,  would  very  rapidly  cool  off  by 
the  process  of  convection.  And  if  the  el- 
ements composing  the  aeriform  body  were  such 
as  by  condensation  become  solid,  we  should 
expect  the  period  of  solidity  to  approach  rap- 
idly. If  this  class  of  elements  were  present  in 
small  proportion,  then  we  should  find  a  small 
nucleus  and  an  extended  aeriform  envelope, 
which  would  be  permanent. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  a  planet  might  be  of 


Temperature  of  the  Planets.  239 

very  low  specific  gravity — that,  for  instance, 
of  water — and  yet  not  be  very  warm.  More- 
over, it  is  conceivable  that  a  planetary  nucleus 
may  be  large  and  solid,  and  yet  be  of  low  spe- 
cific gravity. 

The  nebular  theory  assumes  that  the  plan- 
etary masses  commenced  their  independent 
career  in  the  gaseous  state,  and  it  would  re- 
quire a  great  diminution  of  the  temperature  to 
bring  the  elements  within  the  reach  of  the 
chemical  forces.  That  a  heat  of  dissociation 
exists  in  any  of  the  planets  is  not  claimed. 
But  several  of  the  metals  do  not  need  to  be 
raised  beyond  liquefaction  to  dissociate  them 
and  regenerate  each  by  itself  pure.  We  may, 
therefore,  conclude,  that  whatever  elements  are 
in  the  mass  of  any  one  of  the  planets,  all  the 
metals  have  now  reached  the  stage  of  liquefac- 
tion or  solidity,  and  whatever  there  remains  of 
aeriform  matter  must  be  of  the  nature  of  an 
atmosphere  surrounding  this  denser  nucleus. 
But  if  the  constitution  of  the  more  distant 
planets  be  similar  to  that  of  the  earth,  then 
can  we  account  for  their  lightness  without  sup- 
posing them  to  be  very  hot  ? 

We  answer,  first,  that  u'e  cannot  account  for 


240  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

their  lightness  by  supposing  them  to  be  very  hot. 
A  heat  sufficient  to  give  such  matter  as  consti- 
tutes the  earth  the  specific  gravity  .of  Saturn, 
supposing  that  matter  to  be  elementally  dis- 
tributed as  it  is  in  the  earth,  would  make  that 
matter  incandescent.  If,  then,  Saturn  contain 
all  the  elements  that  are  in  the  earth,  and  in 
the  same  proportions,  the  lightness  of  Saturn 
is  inexplicable.  Supposing  it  to  be  very  hot 
would  not  explain  it,  unless  we  suppose  it  hot 
enough  to  render  its  nucleus  incandescent. 
But  that  would  be  to  render  it  a  sun.  It  is  a 
familiar  fact  that  iron  can  be  liquefied,  and  yet 
its  specific  gravity  will  be  scarcely  sensibly 
changed.  When  run  into  molds  and  cooled  it 
does  not  shrink  away  from  them  so  as  to  injure 
the  cast  which  is  formed.  The  same  thing  is 
observable  of  several  other  metals.  It  is  also 
true  of  the  metallic  earths,  that  they  may  be 
raised  to  white  heat,  and  yet  their  specific 
gravity  is  not  greatly  affected.  If  they  shrank 
much  in  cooling  the  fabrication  of  symmetrical 
stone  ware  and  porcelain  would  be  impossible. 
How  great  must  be  that  heat  which,  to  any 
considerable  degree,  could  lower  the  specific 
gravity  of  a  planet !  We  repeat,  it  would  be 


Temperature  of  the  Planets.  241 

such  that  the  planet  would  be  a  sun,  shining 
with  its  own  light. 

We  answer,  secondly,  We  can  account  for  the 
lightness  of  Saturn  by  supposing  Saturn  to  be 
composed  of  light  matter.  As  the  elements 
are  found  unequally  distributed  on  the  earth, 
so  it  is  not  irrational  to  suppose  that  they  may 
be  unequally  distributed  among  the  planets. 
Winchell  supposes  it  to  be  inevitable  that  in 
the  formation  of  the  planets  by  the  process  of 
detaching  peripheral  rings,  the  lighter  matter 
would  be  in  the  outer  planets.  We  confess  to 
a  degree  of  surprise  when  we  find  him  explain- 
ing the  lightness  of  Saturn  on  the  supposition 
that  it  is  very  hot.  Is  it  not  better,  even  on 
the  basis  of  the  nebular  theory,  to  suppose 
Saturn  to  be  composed  of  very  light  matter? 
There  are  not  wanting,  even  in  the  earth, 
materials  of  sufficient  lightness  to  build  a  com- 
paratively light  globe  out  of,  if  the  architect 
choose  to  build  it  out  of  such  material.  Cal- 
cium is  a  light  metal  ;  so  is  aluminum.  These 
two  metals  are  the  bases  of  most  extensive 
formations  on  the  earth.  Magnesium,-  lith- 
ium, sodium,  potassium,  chlorine,  are  all  light 

substances.      Carbon,  in  its  most  dense  form 
1G 


242  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

known  to  us,  the  diamond,  is  only  three  and  a 
half  times  as  heavy  as  water,  and  in  other 
forms  it  is  much  lighter.  Of  the  heavier  met- 
als, a  less  proportion  may  be  supposed  to  be 
present,  without  in  any  way  diminishing  the 
stability  of  the  structure.  -  A  solid  globe,  com- 
posed of  light  matter,  may  be  surrounded  with 
an  atmosphere  of  much  greater  depth  than  one 
of  the  same  magnitude  composed  of  denser 
elements,  yet  the  density  of  the  atmosphere 
would  not  be  excessive  in  its  lower  strata,  be- 
cause the  density  of  the  lower  air  is  deter- 
mined by  the  weight  of  the  column,  and  the 
weight  of  the  column  is  simply  the  measure  of 
the  total  attraction  of  the  mass  upon  it.  If, 
then,  the  mass  be  specifically  light,  the  attrac- 
tion of  a  given  volume  will  be  proportionately 
light,  and  we  may  suppose  that  Saturn  has  a 
very  deep  atmosphere,  and  yet  the  supposition 
would  not  be  incompatible  with  the  supposi- 
tion that  Saturn  is  a  habitable  world.  So 
much  as  to  the  possibilities  in  this  case,  with- 
out reference  to  the  nebular  theory. 

Now  let  us  look  again  at  Saturn  in  the  light 
of  that  theory.  Saturn  is  quoted — so  also  is 
Jupiter — to  show  that  the  larger  bodies  cool 


Temperature  of  the  Planets.  243 

off  more  slowly  than  the  smaller  bodies,  and 
thus  they  exemplify  different  stages  of  history. 
Neptune  is  a  large  body,  and,  though  it  has 
been  millions  of  ages  cooling  and  condensing, 
it  has  only  reached  a  point  where  its  specific 
gravity  is  nine  tenths.  And  Uranus  is  a  large 
body,  though  not  quite  as  large  as  Neptune, 
nor  is  it  as  old.  It  has  not  been  so  long  cool- 
ing off.  Yet  its  specific  gravity  is  one.  So 
much  younger,  and  yet  heavier !  How  is  this  ? 
Why,  don't  you  see  ?  There  are  two  reasons. 
First,  the  first  planet  was  composed  of  the 
lightest  matter ;  and,  secondly,  the  first  planet 
was  the  larger  planet.  Being  the  lighter  mat- 
ter, it  never  can  become  as  heavy  as  the  sec- 
ond will  become ;  and,  being  the  larger  body, 
it  cannot  cool  off  so  fast,  and  therefore  the 
second  body  will  condense  the  more  rapidly. 
The  fact  is  in  exact  accordance  with  the 
theory. 

But  what  shall  we  say  about  Saturn  ?  Its 
original  density  must  have  been  much  greater 
than  that  of  Neptune,  because  the  volume  of 
the  cosmical  mass  which  threw  off  Neptune 
was  thirty-eight  and  a  half  times  as  great  as 
the  volume  of  the  same  cosmical  mass  when  it 


244          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

threw  off  the  Saturnian  mass.  And  yet  Sa- 
turn is  very  light.  Its  specific  gravity  is  only 
three  fourths.  But,  it  may  be  answered,  Saturn 
is  a  very  large  body,  and  must  cool  off  and 
condense  more  slowly  on  that  account ;  and, 
besides  that,  Saturn  is  a  much  younger  body 
than  Uranus,  and  therefore  has  not  had  time 
to  cool  off  so  much,  even  if  it  were  no  larger. 
Very  well,  what  kind  of  a  body  do  you  really 
think  that  Saturn  is?  An  aeriform  body? 
How  ?  By  the  force  of  heat  ?  Shall  we  allow 
that  there  are  substances  in  Saturn  which  can 
become  solid  ?  Then  they  are  solid  now,  or 
they  are  not.  If  they  are  solid,  then  they  are 
in  a  condition  in  which  the  slowness  of  the 
process  of  cooling  does  not  explain  the  light- 
ness of  Saturn,  for  we  have  shown  that  heat 
does  not  so  expand  the  solids  as  to  diminish 
their  specific  gravity  to  any  considerable  ex- 
tent. But  if  they  are  aeriform  by  the  action 
of  heat,  they  are  also  incandescent.  But  Sat- 
urn is  not  an  incandescent  body.  Saturn 
sheds  from  her  broad  disk  a  very  mild  re- 
flected light.  And  there  are  indications  of  a 
dense  atmosphere  ;  and  at  the  Saturnian  poles 
are  indications  of  snow  and  ice,  which,  in  turn, 


Temperature  of  the  Planets.  245 

indicate  a  solid  globe  and  aqueous  vapors  in 
its  atmosphere.   • 

It  would  seem,  then,  that  the  temperature 
of  Saturn  cannot  differ  greatly  from  that  of 
the  earth.  Thus  in  our  cosmical  equation  we 
have  the  Saturnian  stage  =  the  terrestrial 
stage.  It  would  seem  that  Saturn  is  des- 
tined to  spoil  the  nebular  theory  by  his  in- 
consistences.  He  first  demonstrates  its  truth 
by  displaying  a  series  of  concentric  rings  above 
his  equator.  Then  it  is  discovered  that  his 
rings  are  an  illusion,  and  the  demonstration  is 
worthless.  But  his  friends  subsequently  dis- 
cover that  the  rings  are  simply  granulated, 
and  they  take  heart  from  the  discovery.  But, 
anon,  it  is  found  that  his  levity  is  altogether 
inconsistent  with  his  age.  But  this  is  ac- 
counted for  by  the  supposition,  that  being  so 
great  a  body,  he  has  not  had  time  to  cool  off 
sufficiently  to  bring  his  density  to  the  degree 
demanded  by  his  relative  position  ;  and,  last 
of  all,  this  supposition  is  spoiled  by  the  fact 
that  he  has  a  dense  atmosphere  filled  with 
aqueous  vapors,  and  that  his  polar  regions  are 
icy  cold.  Moreover,  we  are  thus  assured,  that 
remote  as  he  is  from  the  sun,  his  temperature 


246  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

is  dependent  on  the  solar  influence ;  for  if  the 
condition  of  his  atmosphere  depended  on  in- 
ternal heat,  it  would  be  as  warm  at  the  poles 
as  at  the  equator. 

We  see  an  adjustment  of  the  planet's  axis  to 
his  orbit,  so  that  a  succession  of  seasons  is  the 
result ;  we  see  an  axial  rotation  producing  day 
and  night ;  we  perceive  an  atmospheric  tem- 
perature adapted  to  the  absorption  of  aqueous 
vapors,  which  the  spectroscope  assures  us  are 
present  in  it ;  we  see  the  indications  of  atmos- 
pheric changes  similar  to  those  with  which  we 
are  familiar  in  the  earth  ;  and  we  behold  the 
polar  regions  apparently  covered  with  perpet- 
ual snow.  All  these  circumstances  concur  in 
authorizing  the  inference  that  the  thermo- 
metrical  condition  of  Saturn  so  nearly  resem- 
bles that  of  the  earth  that  it  may  be  the  thea- 
ter of  similar  vegetable  and  animal  life,  and 
may  also  be  inhabited  by  beings  whose  consti- 
tution is  similar  to  that  of  man. 

From  this  examination  of  the  indications 
of  the  condition  of  Saturn,  and  the  bearings  of 
them  on  the  credibility  of  the  nebular  theory, 
we  pass  on  to  a  similar  consideration  of  the 


Temperature  of  tJie  Planets.  247 

condition  of  Jupiter.  "  The  Jovian  Stage"  of 
cosmical  history  is  said  to  be  exemplified  by 
Jupiter.  After  describing,  according  to  his 
conception  of  it,  the  condition  of  Mars,  Win- 
eke  II  says :  "  When  we  lift  our  eyes  to  Jupiter, 
lying  beyond  the  populous  zone  of  asteroids,  a 
strongly  contrasted  scene  presents  itself.  Here 
are  no  outlines  of  continents  and  oceans,  but 
only  a  series  of  changing  belts,  which  are  clear- 
ly phenomena  of  a  medium  of  great  mobility. 

"  It  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  that  all 
we  see  of  Jupiter  is  a  perpetual  envelope  of 
clouds.  These  must  float  in  an  atmosphere  at 
a  very  considerable  elevation  above  the  body 
of  the  planet,  and  thus  occasion  an  exagger- 
ated judgment  of  its  bulk,  and  a  diminished 
estimate  of  its  density. 

"  How  shall  we  explain  this  permanent  en- 
velope of  watery  vapor?  The  explanation 
is  easy,  for  this  is  one  of  the  phases  which 
every  planet  must  present  in  the  progress 
of  its  cooling.  A  time  arrives  when  the 
upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere  first  at- 
tain the  temperature  which  condenses  the 
vapor  of  water.  During  a  cosmic  period  the 
clouds  accumulate,  slowly  shutting  out  the 


248  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

light  of  the  sun,  and  copiously  discharging 
their  rains  toward  the  planet.  The  rains,  pen- 
etrating the  lower  strata  of  the  atmosphere, 
are  converted  to  vapor,  and  returned  to  the 
clouds  to  be  again  condensed  and  precipitated. 
Every  ascending  particle  of  vapor  carries  off  a 
portion  of  heat  from  the  atmosphere,  and  pro- 
motes the  cooling  of  the  planet.  But  cosmic 
changes  are  slow,  and  ages  must  elapse  while 
a  tempest  rages  in  mid  air,  which  is  quite  un- 
felt  upon  the  surface  of  the  planet,  save  as  the 
vivid  lightnings  shed  a  violet  gleam  over  the 
arid  surface,  or  the  rolling  thunders  mark  the 
time  of  the  tempest's  march.  Gradually*  the 
line  of  conflict  settles  toward  the  heated  crust. 
At  length  the  rains  strike  the  crust.  Then, 
after  a  period  of  increased  excitement  in  the 
elements,  a  universal  ocean  begins  to  accumu- 
late— a  boiling,  steaming,  turbid  ocean.  After 
a  further  lapse  of  ages  the  cooling  and  accumu- 
lating waters  lead  to  signs  of  exhaustion  in 
the  clouds.  Light  filters  feebly  through,  and 
the  lowest  organisms  appear  in  the  sea.  Then 
the  clouds  break,  and  full  sunlight  and  peace- 
ful elements  are  the  signal  for  advancing  grades 
of  organization. 


Temperature  of  the  Platiets.  249 

"  Such  a  scene  has  been  witnessed  in  our 
own  planet ;  such  a  storm  seems  to  be  raging 
to-day  in  the  heavens  of  Jupiter.  We  gaze 
upon  the  shifting  shadows  of  his  long-drawn 
cloud  belts ;  we  imagine  the  tempest  which  is 
raging  under  their  cover,  and  can  almost  fancy 
we  see  the  cloudy  mass  lit  up  occasionally  by 
an  electric  gleam. 

"  Here  is  a  picture  of  an  age  long  gone  by 
in  the  history  of  the  earth.  Here  is  a  stupen-* 
dous  object-lesson,  which,  like  the  curdled  fire- 
mist  which  engirts  the  sun,  demonstrates  an 
ancient  state  of  terrestrial  things,  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  which  men  could  not  possibly  attain 
either  by  history  or  tradition,  or  even  the  un- 
corroborated testimony  of  the  rocks. 

"  Is  it  demanded  how  a  planet  so  ancient  as 
Jupiter  can  be  in  this  condition,  while  Mars, 
earth,  and  Venus,  so  much  younger,  have  long 
since  passed  their  stormy  epoch  ?  We  answer, 
the  mass  of  Jupiter  is  so  great  that  a  larger 
period  must  be  consumed  in  his  refrigeration. 
The  sun  is  older  than  the  remotest  planet,  and 
has  not  yet  attained  even  the  stage  of  Jupiter. 
As  Jupiter  is  a  thousand  times  the  volume  of 
the  earth,  the  sun  is  a  thousand  times  the  vol- 


250          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

ume  of  Jupiter.  The  '  giant  planet '  'seems 
hardly  to  have  lost  his  inherent  luminosity. 
He  shines  with  a  stronger  light  than  could  be 
expected,  stronger  than  if  his  surface  were 
covered  with  snow.  He  seems,  indeed,  to 
emit,  as  some  think,  even  more  light  than  he 
receives.  Mars  reflects  but  one  fourth  the 
light  received  from  the  sun,  and  the  moon  but 
one  fifth.  Even  if,  according  to  others,  the 
light  emitted  by  Jupiter  is  only  three  fifths  as 
intense  as  total  reflection  of  the  solar  light 
would  render  it,  this,  judging  from  the  reflect- 
ive capacity  of  Mars  and  the  moon,  implies 
that  half  his  light  is  his  own.  Verily,  the 
clouds  must  be  in  the  earliest  stage  of  conden- 
sation about  this  planet,  or  the  lightnings  are 
really  producing  such  an  illumination  as  in 
fancy  we  saw." — Geology  of  the  Stars. 

This  is  a  vivid  picture,  sketched  and  colored 
by  an  artist  of  great  ability  and  unbounded 
enthusiasm.  And  yet  the  picture  is  not  en- 
tirely consistent,  for  certainly  the  existence  of 
such  an  envelope  of  aqueous  vapor  as  is  capa- 
ble of  excluding  the  light  of  the  sun,  is  incon- 
sistent with  a  condition  of  luminosity  in  the 
planet  itself.  Clouds  that  can  keep  the  light 


Temperature  of  the  Planets.  25 1 

of  the  sun  out,  can  quite  as  effectually  keep 
the  light  of  an  incandescent  planetary  body  in. 
We  make  no  account  of  that  lively  fancy  which 
invests  the  Jovian  lightnings  with  the  power 
to  send  their  gleams  to  our  earth.  That  ev- 
idently was  an  extravagant  playfulness  only. 
If,  then,  the  planet  Jupiter  is  really  covered 
with  dense  aqueous  vapors,  it  would  seem  to 
be  conclusive  that  Jupiter  is  not  sending  to  us 
any  light  that  he  does  not  reflect. 

Now  one  of  two  things  we  will  have  to  do : 
we  shall  have  to  spoil  this  "  stupendous  object- 
lesson  "  by  dissipating  these  aqueous  vapors, 
or  we  must*  extinguish  a  portion  of  that  sup- 
posed excess  of  light  which  "  implies  that  half 
his  light  is  his  own."  Both  suppositions  can- 
not be  accepted.  Which  shall  be  relinquished  ? 

The  true  question,  stripped  of  all  irrelevant 
adorning,  is  simply  this:  Is  Jupiter  a  self-lu- 
minous body,  or  is  it  not  ?  Perhaps  there  is 
an  overestimate  of  the  intensity  of  the  light 
of  Jupiter. 

Zolner,  the  distinguished  Berlin  astronomer 
and  spectroscopist,  has  recently  given  much 
attention  to  celestial  photometry.  Employing 
a  photometer  of  his  own  invention,  by  which 


252  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

he  avails  himself  of  the  polarization  of  light, 
he  is  enabled  to  reach  results  of  great  definite- 
ness  and  accuracy.  He  finds  that  the  inten- 
sity of  light  reaching  us  from  Jupiter  is  only 
-]•  as  great  as  that  of  light  reaching  us  from 
Venus,  TV  as  great  as  that  of  light  reaching  us 
from  Mars,  and  j^  as  great  as  that  of  the 
light  of  the  moon.  But  Jupiter  is  about  one 
thousand  six  hundred  times  farther  off  than 
the  moon,  and  it  would,  therefore,  require  two 
million  five  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  moons 
to  send  us  the  amount  of  light  from  that  dis- 
tance that  one  moon  sends  from  its  present 
distance,  were  all  shining  with  their  own  light. 
But  the  disc  of  Jupiter  has  one  thousand  five 
hundred  and  forty-five  times  as  much  surface 
as  the  disc  of  the  moon,  and  therefore  Jupiter 
ought  to  give  out  one  thousand  five  hundred 
and  forty-five  times  as  much  light  as  the  moon, 
and  1,545x700=1,081,500,  the  number  of 
moons,  at  the  distance  of  Jupiter,  represented 
by  the  actual  light  of  the  moon.  It  will  be 
seen,  then,  that  the  light  which  actually  reaches 
us  from  Jupiter  is  such  as  to  indicate  an  orig- 
inal intensity  twice  as  great  as  that  of  the 
moon. 


Temperature  of  the  Planets.  253 

Does  not  this  imply  that  half  the  light  of 
Jupiter  is  his  own?  Not  at  all.  When  we 
estimate  the  amount  of  light  that  two  convex 
mirrors  will  reflect  to  a  given  point  there  are 
three  factors  to  be  considered  : — 

1.  Their  respective  distances  from  that  ob- 
ject. 

2.  Their  respective  reflective  powers. 

3.  Their  respective  convexities. 

It  is  evident  that  when  the  mirrors  are  at  dif- 
ferent distances  the  reflected  rays,  which  are 
not  parallel,  will  be  scattered  over  different 
spaces,  and  hence,  within  given  spaces,  will 
have  different  degrees  of  intensity.  It  is  also 
evident  that  if  one  mirror  reflect  most  of  the 
light  that  falls  on  it,  and  another  mirror  ab- 
sorb much  of  the  light  that  falls  on  it,  the 
two  mirrors  will  reflect  very  different  degrees 
of  light  to  the  same  point.  And  it  must  also 
be  evident  that  if  one  mirror  be  very  convex, 
it  will  scatter  most  of  the  light,  while  a  mirror 
of  slight  convexity  will  scatter  comparatively 
little. 

Now  apply  these  three  factors  to  the  case  of 
Jupiter  and  the  moon  as  reflectors  of  light. 
Of  the  first  we  have  already  taken  account. 


254          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

Let  us  look  at  the  second.  What  kind  of  sur- 
face makes  the  best  reflector?  Certainly  that 
which  is  susceptible  of  the  finest  polish.  But 
let  the  matter  be  full  of  indentations  and  pro- 
jections, let  the  surface  be  rough,  is  it  a  good 
reflector?  But  all  observers  of  the  moon  con- 
cur in  representing  its  hither  hemisphere  as 
indescribably  rough.  It  certainly  is  not  a  re- 
flector of  very  high  quality.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  Jupiter  be  enveloped  by  an  atmosphere 
filled  with  aqueous  vapor,  it  possesses  a  good 
reflective  surface.  Any  one  who  has  ever 
stood  on  a  mountain  and  looked  down  on  a 
lake  of  fog  and  witnessed  the  shimmer  of  the 
light  reflected  therefrom  will  remember  its 
startling  brilliancy.  And  he  who  has  not  seen 
this,  may  remember  the  glow  of  the  cloud  in 
the  east  made  gorgeous  by  the  rays  of  the  set- 
ting sun.  And  all  have  seen  the  silver  edge 
which  the  reflected  rays  of  the  sun  put  on  the 
blackest  thunder  cloud. 

If  the  atmosphere  of  Jupiter  is  filled  with 
aqueous  vapor,  we  can  readily  conceive  that  it 
must  reflect  so  large  a  portion  of  the  sun's 
rays  that  it  should  be  the  most  glorious  orb 
visible  in  the  heavens  at  night.  It  does  not 


Temperature  of  ihe  Planets.  255 

need  that  we  invent  for  Jupiter  any  luminos- 
ity to  account  for  all  the  light  he  sends  to  us. 
But  in  our  comparison  of  the  moon  and  Jupi- 
ter we  must  not  overlook  their  respective 
magnitudes.  The  diameter  of  Jupiter  is  eighty- 
five  thousand  miles.  That  of  the  moon  is  a 
little  more  than  two  thousand  miles.  The  di- 
ameters are  to  each  other  as  forty-two  to  one. 
Now  a  sphere  three  and  a  half  feet  in  diam- 
eter will  fairly  represent  Jupiter,  and  a  sphere 
one  inch  in  diameter  will  represent  the  moon. 
One  half  of  the  larger  of  these  spheres  will  rep- 
resent the  reflecting  surface  of  Jupiter,  and 
half  of  the  smaller  will  represent  the  reflecting 
surface  of  the  moon.  Behold  the  different  de- 
grees of  convexity !  No  one,  we  think,  can 
fail  to  see  that  parallel  rays  of  light  falling 
over  an  area  equal  to  a  hemisphere  of  the 
moon,  on  both  planets  would  be  reflected  very 
differently  by  them.  The  rays  that  fall  on  the 
slightly  convex  surface  of  Jupiter  would  be 
thrown  back  in  slightly  divergent  directions. 
But  the  rays  that  fall  on  the  exceedingly  con- 
vex surface  of  the  moon  must  be  dispersed 
widely  in  space.  In  this  item  of  convexity 
Jupiter  has  great  advantage  as  a  reflector  of 


256  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

the  sun's  light  over  Venus,  Mars,  and  the 
moon. 

To  what  conclusion  do  these  facts  conduct 
us?  Evidently  to  this:  notwithstanding  the 
great  distance  of  Jupiter,  his  light  is  not  such 
as  implies  any  thing  but  reflection.  It  is  of 
no  greater  intensity  than  we  have  a  right  to 
expect  it  to  be,  considering  his  one  thousand 
five  hundred  and  forty-five  lunar  magnitudes 
of  disc,  his  slight  convexity  of  reflecting  sur- 
face, and  the  excellence  of  his  quality  as  a 
reflector  of  light. 

That  Jupiter  is  wholly  opaque  is  further 
shown  by  the  transits  of  Jupiter's  moons.  We 
see  them  not  as  we  see  Venus,  where  she 
makes  a  transit  across  the  sun  as  a  dark  spot 
moving  across  a  luminous  disc,  but  as  bright 
bodies,  like  the  planet,  yet  casting  a  shadow 
on  its  disc  as  they  cross. 

Moreover,  when  these  same  moons  pass  on 
the  opposite  side  of  Jupiter  we  sometimes  see 
them  eclipsed  by  the  planet.  They  enter  his 
shadow,  and  emerge  out  of  his  shadow.  But 
while  they  remain  in  his  shadow  there  is  no 
sign  that  he  is  serving  as  a  sun  to  them  in  the 
slightest  degree. 


Temperature  of  the  Planets.  257 

The  telescopic  features  of  Jupiter  may  be 
briefly  enumerated.  In  the  first  place  it  ap- 
pears to  be  destitute  of  continents  and  seas. 
If  it  has  any  extended,  lofty  ranges  of  mount- 
ains, astronomers  have  failed  to  detect  them. 
It  appears  to  be  belted  with  clouds  which  are 
arranged  parallel  with  the  equator.  These  belts 
are  sometimes  apparently  stationary  for  months, 
and  sometimes  they  seem  to  break  up,  and  to 
spread  out  over  the  whole  disc  of  the  planet. 

Astronomers  are  generally  agreed  that  the 
belts  of  Jupiter  are  phenomena  of  its  atmos- 
phere. The  most  convenient  hypothesis  is 
that  they  are  "  long-drawn  cloud-belts,"  and 
that  Jupiter  is  enveloped  with  a  veiy  deep, 
dense,  and  humid  atmosphere,  and  that  its 
very  abundant  vapors  are,  by  the  diurnal  rota- 
tion, drawn  out  into  parallel  belts* 

It  would  seem  to  be  but  a  short  step  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  body  of  Jupiter  must  be 
very  hot ;  that,  in  fact,  a  "  universal,  boiling, 
steaming,  turbid  ocean "  is  constantly  dis- 
charging its  steam  into  the  atmosphere,  and 
that  the  Jovian  stage  of  planetary  history, 
which  is  there  receiving  its  exemplification,  is 

a  stage  in  which  there  is  no  possible  life.     A 
17 


258  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

modern  utilitarian  might  be  pardoned  a  regret 
that  so  much  steam  power  should  be  wasted. 
We  venture  a  single  suggestion :  Is  it  not  pos- 
sible that  the  "  long-drawn  cloud-belts "  of 
Jupiter  are  an  optical  illusion?  Take  an  or- 
dinary twelve-inch  globe,  and  let  it  be  revolved 
while  you  examine  it.  How  moderate  a  mo- 
tion is  sufficient  to  render  the  images  thereon 
indistinct,  even  while  you  stand  over  it !  But 
remove  from  it  twenty  or  thirty  feet,  and  let 
its  velocity  be  increased.  What  do  you  see  ? 
Continents,  islands,  mountains,  oceans,  seas, 
etc.,  run  together  in  undistinguishable  con- 
fusion. Even  if  the  mountains  were  laid  on, 
and  the  oceans  dug  out,  so  that  irregularities 
proportionate  to  those  on  our  globe  were  cre- 
ated, still,  as  the  little  globe  revolves,  what  do 
you  see?  Do  you  not  see  belts?  Are  they 
not  long  drawn  ?  Are  they  not  parallel  to  the 
equator?  Even  so.  And  now  if  you  only 
could  manage  to  get  up  a  half  inch  of  atmos- 
phere on  this  artificial  globe,  and  have  here 
and  there  a  half-inch  area  of  vapor  floating  in 
it,  your  long-drawn  belts  would  be  cloud-belts, 
would  they  not  ? 

Let  it  be  remembered,  then,  that  stupen- 


Temperature  of  the  Plan:ts.  259 

dous  as  is  the  volume  of  Jupiter,  its  rotation  is 
accomplished  in  less  than  ten  hours.  Thus  the 
surface  of  Jupiter's  equatorial  zone  sweeps  by  the 
observer  at  the  rate  of  twenty-eight  thousand 
miles  an  hour.  What  chance  does  this  rush  of 
the  landscape  afford  for  examining  its  features? 
Any  observation  made  without  a  telescope  of 
high  power  would  be  futile,  for  at  his  great 
distance  from  us  no  details  could  be  made  out. 
But  if  we  could  examine  it  with  a  power  that 
would  bring  it  apparently  as  near  us  as  the 
moon  is,  the  case  would  be  little  better,  for 
the  rotation  would  become  sensible.  This 
hypothesis  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  all  the 
changes  of  the  Jovian  aspects  consist  in  a  wid- 
ening and  narrowing  of  the  belts.  In  other 
words,  the  observed  atmospheric  movements 
are  in  the  direction  of  the  poles.  Is  it  possi- 
ble that  the  clouds  do  not  change  their  places 
to  the  east  and  west  ?  But  if  they  do,  it  would 
not,  perhaps,  be  possible  to  perceive  it. 

That  the  changing  aspects  of  the  belts  indi- 
cate changes  in  the  relative  position  of  cloud- 
masses  we  think  not  unlikely.  Nor  would  it 
require  a  great  excess  of  vapors  in  the  atmos- 
phere of  Jupiter  to  answer  the  demands  of  our 


260  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

hypothesis.  There  is  probably  no  day  in  the 
year  when  an  observer  of  the  earth  from  Venus 
or  Mars  would  not  see  e.xtensive  fields  of  clouds 
in  the  earth's  atmosphere,  and  it  would  not  be 
strange  if,  as  the  earth  revolves  on  its  axis 
these  fields  of  cloud  should  seem  to  be  ar- 
ranged in  belts  when  there  are  no  belts  at  all, 
though  they  would  be  moving  only  at  the  rate 
of  one  thousand  miles  an  hour.  And  yet  there 
is  no  universal  tempest  in  the  earth.  The 
cloud-belts  are  all  the  indication  that  such  a 
tempest  is  now  "  raging  in  the  heavens  of  Ju- 
piter." For  aught  we  know  the  temperature 
of  Jupiter  is  no  higher  than  that  of  the  earth, 
and  it  is  sheer  assumption  to  declare  that 
"  such  a  scene  has  been  witnessed  on  this 
planet ;  such  a  storm  seems  to  be  raging  to- 
day in  the  heavens  of  Jupiter." 

But  in  the  treatment  of  Jupiter,  Winchell 
institutes  a  comparison  with  the  sun.  He  asks : 
"  Is  it  demanded  how  a  planet  so  ancient  as 
Jupiter  can  be  in  this  condition,  while  Mars, 
earth,  and  Venus,  so  much  younger,  have  long 
since  passed  their  stormy  epoch  ?  We  an- 
swer: the  mass  of  Jupiter  is  so  great  that  a 
larger  period  must  be  consumed  in  his  refriger- 


Temperature  of  the  Planets.  261 

ation.  The  sun  is  older  than  the  remotest 
planet,  and  has  not  yet  attained  even  the  stage 
of  Jupiter.  As  Jupiter  is  a  thousand  times 
the  volume  of  the  earth,  the  sun  is  a  thousand 
times  the  volume  of  Jupiter."  These  remarks 
suggest  to  us  certain  questions  similar  to  those 
we  have  already  raised  touching  Saturn.  It  is 
generally  conceded  that  the  density  of  Jupiter 
is  about  one  and  three  eighths,  while  the  den- 
sity of  the  sun  is  one  and  a  half.  The  sun  is 
the  denser  body.  And  yet,  according  to  Win- 
chell's  own  reasoning,  the  planet,  being  only 
one  thousandth  the  magnitude  of  the  sun,  it 
ought  to  have  run  through  its  cosmic  periods 
with  a  thousand  times  the  rapidity  of  the  sun. 

Why  is  the  earth  solid  and  cold,  while  Ju- 
piter is  boiling  and  steaming,  and  only  begin- 
ning to  harden?  Why,  bless  you,  that  is  not 
a  hard  question  at  all !  Jupiter  is  a  very  great 
planet,  and  the  earth  is  a  very  little  one,  and 
so  the  "  mass  of  Jupiter  is  so  great  that  a  large 
period  must  be  consumed  in  his  refrigeration." 

Well,  the  sun  is  a  great  body,  too.  It  is  a 
thousand  times  as  large  as  Jupiter,  is  it  not? 
And  since  it  let  Jupiter  go  out  for  himself 
the  sun  has  been  cooling  off,  has  he  not  ?  And 


262  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

condensing?  He  has  shrunken  away  from  a 
magnitude  indicated  by  the  orbit  of  Jupiter 
himself  to  the  little  magnitude  of  the  sun,  a 
body  whose  diameter  is  only  eight  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  miles,  has  he  not?  You 
admit  this.  Well,  then,  what  has  this  Jupiter 
been  doing  all  this  time?  Cooling  off!  In- 
deed. And  shrinking  !  Condensing  !  Does 
not  your  calculus  say  that  he  must  have  pro- 
ceeded in  this  work  a  thousand  times  as  rap- 
idly as  the  sun  ?  Then  how  is  it  that  in  the 
matter  of  condensing  he  has  not  even  kept 
pace  with  the  sun  ? 

If  the  reasoning  of  Winchell  be  valid  rea- 
soning on  this  subject,  Jupiter  ought  now  to  be 
hundreds  of  times  as  dense  as  the  sun,  unless 
we  suppose  it  to  have  reached  a  condition  in 
which  its  density  cannot  be  increased  by  its 
cooling  off.  In  that  event  the  Jovian  stage  of 
planetary  history  would  be  dismissed,  and  the 
occasion  would  cease  on  which  it  could  be 
said :  "  Here  is  a  picture  of  an  age  long  gone* 
by  in  the  history  of  the  earth.  Here  is  a  stu- 
pendous object  lesson,  which,  like  the  curdled 
fire-mist  which  engirts  the  sun,  demonstrates 
an  ancient  state  of  terrestrial  things,"  etc. 


Temperature  of  the  Planets.  263 

All  this,  in  the  presence  of  sober  inquiry, 
seems  idle.  Worse  than  idle  !  It  is  little  less 
than  charlatan  dogmatism  introduced  into  the 
domain  of  science. 

"  Curdled  fire-mist  that  engirts  the  sun  !  " 
Curdled  nonsense.  If  any  dependence  is  to 
be  placed  on  the  revelations  of  the  spectro- 
scope, the  sun  is  engirt  with  very  rare  hydro- 
gen gas. 


264  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

PHYSICAL    CONDITION    OF   MARS. 

Telescopic  appearance — Red  land — Green  seas — Seasons — 
Atmosphere  —  Clouds  —  Average  temperature  —  Densities  — 
Facts  against  theories. 

THE  planet  Mars  revolves  around  the  sun 
at  a  mean  distance  of  139.3  millions  of 
miles.  Its  diameter  is  about  four  thousand 
three  hundred  miles,  or  about  twice  that  of 
our  moon.  Its  diurnal  rotation  is  accom- 
plished in  twenty-four  hours,  thirty-seven  min- 
utes, and  twenty-two  seconds.  Its  equatorial 
velocity  is,  therefore,  a  little  more  than  five 
hundred  and  thirty  miles  an  hour,  or  about  ^ 
of  the  equatorial  velocity  of  Jupiter. 

In  several  respects  Mars  is  favorably  sit- 
uated for  telescopic  examination.  Both  at  its 
conjunction  with  the  sun  and  at  its  opposition 
it  turns  its  illuminated  hemisphere  toward  the 
earth,  and  although  it  passes  through  some  of 
the  phases  of  the  moon,  it  always  shows  at 
least  half  of  its  disc  enlightened.  It  is  nearest 


Physical  Condition  of  Mars.  265 

the  earth  at  its  opposition,  and  then,  like  the 
full  moon,  shows  a  full,  round  disc.  Its  appar- 
ent magnitude  is  about  fifty  times  as  great  at 
apposition  as  at  conjunction,  which  circum- 
stance renders  that  the  most  favorable  time  to 
observe  it.  It  is  also  then  in  the  darkest  part 
of  the  heavens,  and  this  circumstance  gives  us 
the  full  benefit  of  the  planet's  reflection. 

Unlike  the  moon,  Mars  turns  all  sides  suc- 
cessively to  the  observer,  yet  with  a  motion  so 
deliberate  as  not  to  embarrass  observation. 
Mars,  to  the  naked  eye,  appears  the  ruddiest 
of  all  the  heavenly  bodies.  Under  the  tel- 
escope it  appears  to  be  variegated,  the  princi- 
pal colors  being  red,  green,  and  white.  As- 
tronomers are  generally  agreed  that  the  red 
portions  are  land,  the  green  portions  water, 
and  the  white  portions,  which  are  chiefly  in  the 
polar  regions,  are  snow  and  ice.  The  divisions 
of  red  and  green  appear  to  be  constant,  as  to 
each  other,  and  so  the  supposition  that  they 
are  permanent  divisions  of  land  and  water 
seem  to  be  justified.  Which  are  land  and 
which  are  water  have  been,  and  still  continue 
to  be,  questions  on  which  men  speculate.  The 
land  may  be  red  or  reddish,  like  the  red  sand- 


266  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

stone,  some  of  the  clays,  and  much  of  the  feld- 
spar of  the  earth.  Some  have  imagined  the 
existence  of  a  Martial  vegetation,  the  principal 
color  of  which  is  red.  That  even  this  is  possi- 
ble is  evident  from  the  existence  on  the  earth 
of  some  species  of  plants,  the  stems  and  leaves 
of  which  are  red. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  not  escaped 
notice  that  terrestrial  waters  have  been  found 
reddened  by  infusoria,  and  it  has  been  thought 
that  the  waters  of  Mars  may  be  reddened  in 
the  same  manner,  and  so  the  red  portions  of 
that  planet  may  be  water  and  the  green  por- 
tions land.  Then  we  might  conceive  of  the 
land  of  that  little  planet  as  clothed  in  a  gar- 
ment of  evergreen  vegetation. 

We  may  never  be  able  to  settle  these  ques- 
tions. We  might  conceive  that  the  Author  of 
all  things  takes  such  delight  in  diversifying  his 
works  that  the  phenomena  of  land  and  water, 
and  of  vegetable  and  animal  life  upon  that 
planet,  shall  be  in  strong  contrast  with  kin- 
dred phenomena  on  the  earth.  But  this  is 
mere  speculation.  Are  there  any  facts  touch- 
ing the  physical  constitution  of  Mars,  which 
have  been  so  well  established  that  they  are 


Physical  Condition  of  Mars.  267 

not  considered  doubtful  by  the  leading  astron- 
omers of  our  times?  Yes.  It  is  not  ques- 
tioned that  Mars  is  constituted  of  matter  exist- 
ing in  the  three  forms,  solid,  liquid,  and  aeri- 
form. It  is  chiefly  a  solid  body.  But  there 
are  bodies  of  water  upon  it,  and  it  is  sur- 
rounded by  an  atmosphere  in  which  aqueous 
vapors  are  known  to  exist. 

Janssen,  of  Paris,  was  at  great  pains  to  as- 
certain the  spectrum  of  light  which  had  passed 
through  aqueous  vapor.  Afterward  he  made 
the  planets  Mars  and  Saturn  the  subject  of 
spectroscopic  observation,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  existence  of  aqueous  vapors  in 
their  atmospheres,  and  he  concluded  that  he 
had  the  proof  of  their  existence. 

Huggins  has  made  the  atmosphere  of  Mars 
a  particular  study,  and  he  has  found  that  the 
vapor  of  water  exists  there — true  vapor  of 
water — the  same  thing  chemically  as  water  on 
the  earth.  It  follows,  from  these  observations, 
that  the  average  temperature  of  Mars  cannot 
differ  materially  from  that  of  the  earth.  The 
mass  of  the  seas  is  fluid  water.  The  temper- 
ature of  the  seasons  depends  on  the  relations 
of  the  polar  hemispheres  to  the  sun,  and  on 


268  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

nothing  else.  The  sun  has  power  to  unlock 
the  fastnesses  of  the  ice-bound  zones ;  to  con- 
vert the  snows  of  winter  into  the  rivulets  and 
brooks  and  swollen  streams  of  spring  and  sum- 
mer ;  to  lift  the  aqueous  particles  out  of  the 
liquid  state  in  the  seas,  and  send  them,  on  the 
wings  of  the  wind,  over  the  continents,  where 
they  are  permitted  to  fall  in  showers  of  re- 
freshing. There,  as  here,  .the  great  motive 
power  is  the  sunlight,  and  it  is  sufficient  when 
Mars  is  at  its  aphelion,  and  it  is  not  in  excess 
when,  at  his  perihelion,  he  is  thirteen  millions 
of  miles  nearer  the  sun. 

While  Mars  is  thus  constituted  of  solid, 
liquid,  and  aeriform  matter,  his  specific  grav- 
ity is  TVo-  of  that  of  the  earth.  (Some  place 
the  specific  gravity  at  four,  water  being  one.) 

We  have  been  thus  particular  to  state  known 
features  of  the  physical  condition  of  Mars,  be- 
cause Mars  is  also  a  representative  planet  in 
the  nebular  theory.  It  exemplifies  "  the  Mar- 
tial stage."  The  Martial  stage  is  a  little  in 
advance  of  the  "  terrestrial  stage."  Life,  if  it 
has  not  all  gone  out,  is  not  very  far  from  its 
last  gasp  in  Mars,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 


Physical  Condition  of  Mars.    .       269 

earth  may  be  assured  that  when  the  interior 
fires  give  out,  the  earth,  too,  will  enter  the 
Martial  stage,  and  the  final  winter  will  com- 
mence. It  may  be  some  relief  to  recall  Tyn- 
dall's  comforting  prediction  that  the  earth 
will,  after  freezing  up,  fall  into  the  sun,  when 
it  will  certainly  be  hot  enough  for  awhile. 
Will  the  reader  pardon  this  pleasantry  ?  We 
will  proceed  to  sober  work.  In  the  discussion 
of  the  nebular  theory  in  connection  with  Mars, 
we  again  assume  as  true  the  pertinent  partic- 
ulars of  that  theory. 

That  the  planetary  and  solar  matter  origin- 
ally existed  in  a  gaseous  condition ;  that  the 
lighter  matter  went  off  in  the  outer  planets  ; 
that  all  the  planets  have  been  cooling  off  and 
becoming  more  dense;  and  that  the  present 
condition  of  a  planet  depends,  first,  on  its  orig- 
inal density ;  second,  on  its  original  volume  ; 
and,  third,  on  its  age.  If  the  matter  of  a 
planet  consist  of  elements  of  low  specific  grav- 
ity, then,  no  matter  what  its  age  may  be,  the 
planet  will  be  light.  If  the  planet  consist  of 
all  the  elements  which,  in  a  dissociated  gas- 
eous state,  were  intermixed  so  as  to  make  a 
homogeneous  mass,  as  Sterry  Hunt  maintains, 


270          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

then  the  cooling  and  condensing  will  be  at- 
tended with  a  regular  increase  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  planet  until  it  reaches  the  state 
of  liquidity  or  solidity.  If,  then,  the  volume 
of  one  planet  contracts  exactly  in  the  ratio  in 
which  the  volume  of  another  planet  contracts, 
the  densities  of  the  two  bodies  being  equal, 
each  to  each  at  the  beginning,  they  will  remain 
equal  each  to  each  through  all  the  periods  of 
their  existence. 

But  if  the  original  volume  of  one  planet  be 
twice  or  any  number  of  times  as  great  as  the 
original  volume  of  another  planet,  then,  their 
original  density  being  the  same,  the  smaller 
planet  will  cool  off  and  condense  twice,  or  such 
number  of  times,  as  fast  as  the  larger  planet 
will  cool  off  and  condense. 

Having  assumed  these  principles  as  correct, 
we  now  beg  the  reader  to  accompany  us  in  a 
careful  and  sober  examination  of  this  question, 
What  ought  to  be  the  comparative  or  relative 
densities  of  the  earth,  the  moon,  and  Mars  ? 

Let  us  first  compare  the  earth  and  Mars.  If, 
as  maintained  by  Hunt,  the  gaseous  matter 
must  be  homogeneous,  then  we  have  the  same 
elements  in  these  three  bodies.  Mars,  how- 


Physical  Condition  of  Mars.          271 

ever,  was  the  first  to  take  his  position  and  de- 
part on  his  separate  career.  And  Mars  took 
only  about  one  twenty-six  hundred  thousandth 
part  of  the  paternal  estate  when  he  left;  that 
is,  the  cosmical  mass  which  Mars  left  behind 
was  twenty-six  hundred  thousand  times  as 
great  as  the  mass  of  Mars  itself.  Our  nebular 
mathematics  conducts  us  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  condensation  of  the  Martial  mass  went 
on  from  that  time  twenty-six  hundred  thou- 
sand times  as  fast  as  the  condensation  of  the 
parent  mass.  But  in  time,  we  know  not  how 
long,  the  parent  mass  shrunk  to  a  magnitude 
indicated  by  the  earth's  orbit,  and,  at  this 
time,  it  was  still  a  gaseous  mass,  but  its  den- 
sity was  almost  two  and  a  half  times  what  it 
was  at  the  birth  of  Mars.  Then  the  earth  was 
detached,  with  a  density  almost  two  and  a 
half  times  as  great  as  the  original  density  of 
Mars.  But  Mars  was  now  two  million  six 
hundred  thousand  times  as  dense  as  at  first. 
Therefore,  when  the  earth  began  its  planetary 
career,  the  density  of  Mars  was  more  than  a 
million  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  earth- 
mass.  Now  can  the  earth  ever  overtake  Mars? 
No,  not  only  because  of  the  start  which  Mars 


272  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

actually  had,  but  also  because  of  the  greater 
fleetness  of  Mars  in  the  race.  Mars  is  only 
about  one  eighth  of  the  mass  of  the  earth, 
and  as  to  volume  at  the  beginning  of  this  con- 
temporaneous history,  Mars  was  only  the  one 
two  million  six  hundred  thousandth  of  his  former 
self,  while  the  earth  was  more  than  a  million 
times  larger  than  he.  But  as  Mars  is  now  only 
one  eighth  of  the  mass  of  the  earth,  he  will 
cool  off  and  condense  eight  times  as  fast  as  the 
earth  can,  and,  therefore,  the  earth  never  can 
overtake  him.  Never.  Even  when  Mars  shall 
have  reached  that  stage  of  refrigeration  in 
which  the  whole  mass  is  solid,  if  there  be  any 
degree  of  condensation  still  possible,  Mars  will 
progress  faster  than  the  earth  can.  But  Mars 
has  not  yet  reached  that  stage,  and  yet  the 
earth  has  overtaken  Mars  and  passed  him  in 
the  race.  The  density  of  the  earth  is  even  now 
greater  than  the  density  of  Mars.  Mars  ought 
to  be  frozen  up.  His  seas  and  oceans  ought 
to  be  absorbed  by  the  rocks. 

The  Martial  stage,  according  to  Winchell,  is 
one  a  little  further  advanced  than  the  terres- 
trial stage.  But  Mars  ought  not  to  be  in  the 
Martial  stage  now,  but  in  the  lunar  stage,  if 


Physical  Condition  of  Mars.  273 

the  principles  of  the  nebular  theory  are  appli- 
cable to  him.  Mars  is,  according  to  the  theory, 
millions  of  years  older  than  the  earth.  The 
earth  is  other  millions  of  years  older  than  the 
moon,  and  yet  the  moon  is,  according  to  the 
same  theory,  "  a  fossil  world,  an  ancient  cin- 
der, suspended  in  the  heavens,  once  the  seat 
of  all  the  varied  activities  which  now  charac- 
terize the  surface  of  our  earth,  but  in  the  pres- 
ent period  a  realm  of  silence  and  stagnation. 
Sprung  from  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  there 
was  a  time  when  its  physical  condition  had 
not  diverged  from  that  of  the  earth,  but  swung 
by  itself  in  the  midst  of  frigid  space,  and  liav- 
ing  but  one  forty -ninth  the  bulk  of  the  earth  for 
the  conservation  of  its  temperature,  cooling  pro- 
ceeded forty-nine  times  as  rapidly  as  that  of  the 
earth.  Its  geological  periods  were  correspond- 
ingly shorter." — Geology  of  the  Stars. 

Now  we  beg  the  advocates  of  this  theory  to 
adhere  to  its  postulates.  Why  is  the  moon 
now  a  frozen  planet,  while  the  earth,  which  is 
its  parent,  continues  internally  molten,  and  is 
adapted  externally  for  so  many  forms  of  life  ? 
Why?  The  answer  is  simple.  The  moon 

was  so  little.     It  was  only  one  forty-ninth  as 
18 


274  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

large  as  the  earth,  and  so  it  cooled  off  forty- 
nine  times  faster  than  the  earth  cooled,  and 
that  made  its  "  geological  periods"  (not  simply 
its  "  cosmic  periods,"  while  it  was  yet  a  gas- 
eous body,  but  its  geological  periods  also,  all 
of  them)  correspondingly  shorter.  The  lunar 
geological  periods  were  only  one  forty-ninth 
as  long  as  the  terrestrial  geological  periods. 

Very  well.  Now  will  you  be  so  good  as  to 
tell  us  why  Mars,  which  has  only  about  one 
eighth  as  much  mass  as  the  earth,  which  at 
one  time  was  only  To  o  o  o  o  o  as  large  as  the  earth, 
which  also  is  millions  of  years  older  than  the 
earth,  and  which  is  hung  out  millions  of  miles 
farther  in  frigid  space  than  the  earth,  has  not 
yet  frozen  up?  Why  can  we  detect  no  real 
difference  between  the  temperature  of  Mars 
and  the  temperature  of  the  earth  ?  We  know 
of  but  one  reason,  and  that  is,  we  have  no 
theory  to  serve  by  perceiving  a  difference 
where  there  is  none,  and  where  there  are  no 
signs  of  any. 

The  mass  and  volume  of  Mars  being  small, 
and  the  age  of  Mars  being  great,  it  ought,  on 
the  principles  of  the  nebular  theory,  to  be  in 
the  condition  of  the  moon,  but  it  is  not.  It  is 


Physical  Condition  of  Mars.  275 

plump  and  fair,  having  oceans,  seas,  and  an 
atmosphere,  and  showing  all  the  signs  of  a 
physical  condition  similar  to  that  of  the  earth. 
Unless  both  planets  have  reached  the  point 
where  their  density  does  not  change,  the  den- 
sity of  Mars  ought  to  be  greater  than  that  of 
the  earth.  Thus  Mars,  both  in  temperature 
and  in  density,  is  an  irreconcilable  contradic- 
tion of  the  nebular  theory. 


276          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

PLANETARY     MASSES. 

A  SSUMING  the  truth  of  the  nebular 
-^*-  theory,  what  will  follow  touching  the 
relative  masses  of  the  planetary  bodies  ?  Shall 
we  find  them  graduated  by  any  law  ?  Will 
they  be  equal  each  to  each?  Will  the  one 
first  detached  be  least,  and  will  each  succes- 
sive one  be  greater?  Or  will  the  first  be 
greatest,  and  will  each  succeeding  one  be  less 
than  its  immediate  predecessor? 

As  a  philosophical  question  we  will  consider 
not  the  actual,  but  the  inevitable  structure  of 
the  planetary  system  upon  the  assumption  of 
the  postulates  of  the  Nebular  Hypothesis  and 
the  operation  of  known  physical  laws. 

We  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the 
theory  represents  all  the  cosmical  matter  at 
the  time  of  detaching  a  planetary  mass  as 
aeriform,  the  planetary  mass  itself  as  aeri- 
form, and  the  elements  as  dissociated  and 
mixed  intimately  together.  And  while  one 


Planetary  Masses.  277 

class  teach  that  the  lighter  elements  were  in 
the  outer  portions,  another  class  teach  that 
they  were  so  intermixed  that  the  mass  was 
homogeneous.  It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind, 
that  according  to  the  hypothesis,  the  planetary 
matter  was  detached  as  a  peripheral  ring,  and 
afterward  became  a  planet.  The  peripheral 
ring  was  detached  by  the  centrifugal  force,  but 
how  the  ring  was  changed  into  a  planetary 
mass  the  advocates  of  the  theory  do  not  try 
to  show.  Touching  the  centrifugal  force,  we 
know  that  it  arises  out  of  the  rotary  mo- 
tion, and  that  it  may  be  productive  of  great 
effects. 

But  we  know  also  that  whenever  a  body  is 
moved  a  certain  amount  of  force  is  exerted. 
So,  also,  whenever  the  direction  of  the  motion 
of  a  body  is  changed  a  certain  amount  of  force 
is  exerted.  We  may  never  be  able  to  deter- 
mine what  amount  of  force  would  be  requisite 
to  produce  the  first  peripheral  ring ;  but  one 
thing  we  may  confidently  say,  that  if  two  bod- 
ies of  the  same  size  and  density  were  revolv- 
ing in  space,  then,  whatever  velocity  of  rota- 
tion in  one  of  them  would  cause  the  detach- 
ment of  a  peripheral  ring,  exactly  the  same 


278  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

velocity  in  the  other  would  also  detach  a  per- 
ipheral ring.  But  that  is  to  say  that  a  fixed 
ratio  must  exist  between  the  centrifugal  force 
and  the  quantity  of  matter  which  it  is  able  to 
detach  under  the  same  conditions. 

Against  the  centrifugal  force  two  other 
forces  are  acting.  The  force  of  cohesive  at- 
traction, though  infinitely  feeble,  may  be  said 
to  exist  in  the  gaseous  substance.  The  force 
of  gravity  on  the  peripheral  portion  of  the 
mass  can  be  estimated  by  assuming  the  dis- 
tance which  the  periphery  was  from  the  center, 
and  assuming  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the 
mass. 

But  it  may  also  be  estimated  relatively  for  any 
two  or  more  peripheral  rings  by  simply  assum- 
ing the  distance.  Let  G  be  the  force  of  grav- 
ity at  the  distance  of  Neptune.  Then,  as  this 
force  is  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the  distances, 
it  will  be  at  the  distance  of  Uranus,  about 
3  G ;  at  the  distance  of  Saturn,  11.5  G;  at  Ju- 
piter, 36.9,  etc.  It  will  be  seen,  then,  that 
the  centrifugal  force  will  have  three  times  as 
much  gravitative  force  to  overcome  a,t  the  dis- 
tance of  Uranus  as  at  the  distance  of  Nep- 
tune. At  the  distance  of  Saturn  it  will  have 


Planetary  Masses.  279 

eleven  times  as  much,  and  at  the  distance  of 
Jupiter  thirty-six  times  as  much.  And  this 
will  go  on  so  long  as  the  cosmical  mass  con- 
tinues to  contract.  In  each  case  of  ring  de- 
tachment, so  much  matter  as  the  ring  contains 
will  transfer  its  gravitative  influence  to  the 
outer  regions.  If  it  continue  a  ring,  its  pull 
on  the  peripheral  portion  of  the  mass  will  be 
uniform  on  all  sides,  and  will  counteract  an  equal 
inward  gravitation.  But  if  it  be  assembled 
into  a  planetary  mass  its  pull  will  be  all  in  one 
direction,  and  we  may  conceive  that  it  will 
assist  in  breaking  up  future  rings.  But  the 
gravitative  force  which  the  mass  of  Neptune 
could  exert  when  near  the  periphery  can  be 
only  2-Q*oo-o  G,  and  it  will  constantly  diminish 
as  the  mass  contracts,  so  that  at  the  time  of 
the  detachment  of  the  Uranian  mass  it  will 
not  exceed  T.T^TIT  G,  an  element  of  influence 
too  minute  to  greatly  affect  the  results,  and 
we  will,  therefore,  omit  further  reference  to 
these  separate  counteracting  attractions.  We 
shall  see  that  the  centrifugal  force,  before  it 
could  detach  matter  from  the  periphery  of  the 
rotating  sphere — assuming  that  it  could  detach 
at  all — must,  in  each  instance,  as  we  proceed 


280          THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

toward  the  center,  overcome  a  gravitative 
force  several  times  greater  than  it  overcame  in 
the  next  preceding  instance.  And  the  same 
thing  must  be  true  of  density.  If  the  density 
of  the  mass  will  have  any  modifying  power,  it 
will  certainly  be  increased  as  the  mass  con- 
tracts and  the  density  increases.  We  shall 
then  conceive  of  the  cosmical  sphere  as  rotat- 
ing with  accelerated  velocity,  until  it  reaches 
the  point  at  which  the  feeble  coherency  of  the 
substance  and  the  powerful  attraction  of  the 
mass  upon  the  protuberant  equator  are  over- 
come by  the  centrifugal  force,  and  this  equa- 
torial portion  is  lifted  off  as  a  ring.  We  now 
conceive  of  a  gradual  contraction  of  the  mass, 
by  which  its  density  is  made  four  and  a  half 
times  as  great  as  at  first,  and  the  central  grav- 
itation of  the  periphery  is  become  three  times 
as  great  as  at  first.  In  thus  contracting,  the 
rate  of  axial  rotation  has  been  increased  from 
T <ro^ oo  of  a  degree  per  hour  to  ro£,9ooo  of  a 
degree  per  hour,  that  is,  the  rate  of  axial  rota- 
tion as  nearly  doubled. 

At  this  point  the  Uranian  planetary  mass  is 
detached,  and  again  the  parent  mass  contracts 
until  its  density  becomes  about  thirty-eight 


Planetary  Masses.  281 

times  as  great  as  at  first,  and  the  gravitative 
force  holds  the  peripheral  matter  more  than 
eleven  times  as  strongly  as  it  did  at  first,  and 
at  this  time  the  axial  rotation  has  increased 
to  To'uVo  °f  a  degree  per  hour,  that  is,  it  is  5.6  . 
times  as  great  as  at  first.  And  now  the  U«P^ 
nian  mass  is  separated  from  the  parent  mass. 
Again,  there  is  gradual  contraction  until  the 
density  is  two  hundred  and  forty  times  as  great 
as  at  first,  the  central  gravitative  force  is  more 
than  thirty-six  times  as  great  upon  the  per- 
ipheral matter  as  it  was  at  first,  and  the  axial 
rotation  is  To.Voo  of  a  degree  per  hour,  or  3.6 
times  as  great  as  it  was  at  first,  and  then  the 
Jovian  mass  is  detached. 

We  need  not  extend  this  exhibit  further. 
We  now  proceed,  on  the  presumption  that  we 
know  absolutely  nothing  about  the  actual 
masses  of  these  several  planets.  We  will  rea- 
son from  the  known  fact  that  a  double  force 
will  be  required  to  overcome  double  resistance. 
We  know  that  the  centrifugal  force  is  quad- 
rupled if  we  double  the  rate  of  rotation.  We 
also  know  that  the  force  of  gravity  is  quad- 
rupled if  we  diminish  the  distance  to  one 
half. 


282  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

It  may  be  assumed,  then,  that  the  increase  of 
the  velocity  caused  by  contraction  will  be  ex- 
actly offset  by  the  increase  of  the  gravitative 
force  arising  from  the  same  cause,  and  we  leave 
it  out  of  our  calculation.  What,  then,  will 
happen  ?  Will  the  second  ring  contain  more 
matter  than  the  first,  or  will  it  contain  less,  or 
will  it  be  just  the  same  ? 

There  is  one  element  to  be  considered  as 
likely  to  modify  the  result.  That  element  is 
density.  We  can  hardly  conceive  that  the 
change  of  density  will  not,  in  some  way,  affect 
the  detaching  efficiency  of  the  centrifugal 
force.  But  so  long  as  the  changes  of  density 
are  all  in  one  direction,  the  effect  of  density 
on  the  detaching  efficiency  will  be  in  one 
direction. 

Let  it  be  assumed  that  increase  of  density 
will  hinder  the  detaching  force,  so  that  it  can- 
not throw  off  so  large  a  mass.  Then  the  sec- 
ond planetary  mass  will  be  less  than  the  first, 
the  third  less  than  the  second,  the  fourth  less 
than  the  third,  and  so  on  to  the  last.  Then 
the  outmost  planet  will  be  greatest,  and  the 
innermost  one  will  be  least.  And  if  there  be 
any  law  governing  the  formation  of  these  hypo- 


Planetary  Masses.  283 

thetical  rings,  then  we  shall  find  a  regular  gra- 
dation of  planetary  masses,  the  planet  of  least 
mass  being  nearest  the  sun. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  let  it  be  assumed 
that  the  increase  of  density  will  so  increase  the 
efficiency  of  the  centrifugal  force  that  it  will 
carry  off  a  larger  portion  of  the  peripheral 
matter.  The  second  planetary  mass  will  be 
larger  than  the  first,  the  third  larger  than  the 
second,  the  fourth  larger  than  the  third,  and 
so  on,  until  the  last  will  be  found  the  largest 
of  all.  Here,  again,  will  be  a  regular  grada- 
tion ;  but  the  remotest  planet  will  be  least, 
and  the  "  giant  planet "  will  be  found  nearest 
the  sun. 

Is  it  too  much  to  say  that  this  regular  grada- 
tion of  the  planetary  masses  is  one  of  the 
"uniformities"  which  we  are  authorized  by 
the  fundamental  postulates  of  the  nebular 
theory  to  expect  ?  No  matter  which  way  the 
gradation  is,  from  greater  to  less  or  from  less 
to  greater,  would  it  not  seem  to  be  a  theoret- 
ical necessity? 

We  speak  thus  confidently,  because  it  is  well 
known  that  velocities  and  forces  have  math- 
ematical relations.  Problems  of  force,  in  which 


284  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

matter  and  motion  are  the  factors,  are  of  almost 
daily  occurrence. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  make  one  more 
survey  of  the  planetary  system,  and  examine 
the  actual  relative  masses  of  the  planets.  We 
take  account  not  of  volume,  because  that  is 
supposed  to  be  undergoing  change.  We  take 
account  of  masses,  because  these  are  constant, 
and  we  will  employ,  as  the  unit  of  our  scale, 
the  mass  of  the  earth.  With  the  earth  as  one, 
we  find  Neptune  sixteen  and  one  half.  It  is  a 
large  planet.  We  conclude  that  the  extreme 
tenuity  of  the  cosmical  stuff  was  favorable  to 
the  formation  of  large  planets.  We  pass  on  to 
Uranus.  It  is  found  to  be  only  about  three 
fourths  as  large  as  Neptune.  How  shall  we 
explain  this  falling  off?  It  cannot  be  for  the 
lack  of  velocity,  because  that  has  almost  doub- 
led. But  the  density  has  increased  fourfold. 
It  must  be  that.  And  as  we  know  that  the 
density  will  increase  as  the  volume  contracts, 
we  conclude  that  the  planetary  masses  will  be 
found  to  be  less  and  less  as  we  proceed  to- 
ward the  sun. 

Let  us  go  forward  and  verify  our  generaliza- 
tion. We  find  the  orbit  of  Saturn,  and  we 


Planetary  Masses.  285 

know  that  in  contracting  to  the  limit  marked 
by  this  orbit  the  density  of  the  cosmical  stuff 
is  made  eight  times  as  great  as  it  was  when 
Uranus  was  detached,  while  the  rate  of  the  axial 
rotation  is  only  two  and  eighty-five  one  hun- 
dredth times  as  great  as  it  then  was.  So  great 
an  increase  of  density  and  so  small  an  increase 
of  velocity !  Surely  the  new  planetary  mass 
must  be  very  small!  Amazing  futility  of  de- 
duction ! 

Look  at  the  Saturnian  mass.  In  our  scale 
it  stands  at  ninety  earth-masses.  It  is  seven 
times  as  great  as  the  Uranian  mass.  Capri- 
cious Saturn  !  The  gradation  is  reversed.  We 
are  on  an  ascending  scale. 

Let  us  examine  Jupiter.  The  gradation  is 
precipitous.  Jupiter  exhibits  a  mass  equal  to 
three  hundred  and  one  earths.  It  is  more 
than  three  times  as  great  as  Saturn.  And  yet 
the  density  of  the  fire-mist,  out  of  which  the 
Jovian  mass  is  supposed  to  have  been  taken, 
was  six  and  a  half  times  as  great  as  that  of  the 
Saturnian  mass,  and  two  hundred  and  forty- 
seven  times  that  of  the  original  world-stuff. 

Our  comparison  of  the  planetary  masses 
does  not  give  satisfactory  results.  At  first  it 


286  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

suggests  that  the  increase  of  density  in  the  re- 
volving mass  will  so  embarrass  the  efficiency 
of  the  centrifugal  force  that  it  will  detach  less 
and  less  matter  from  its  periphery.  But  again 
and  again  it  has  seemed  to  show  that  it  will 
cause  it  to  detach  larger  masses  successively. 
So  now  we  must  conclude,  contrary  to  our 
first  conclusion,  that  the  planets  will  be  found 
larger  and  larger  as  we  proceed  toward  the 
sun.  We  still  insist  that  if  this  be  the  mode 
in  which  the  worlds  have  been  formed,  we 
must  find  some  uniformity  in  the  effects  of  the 
centrifugal  force. 

There  is  a  mathematical  ratio  between  mo- 
tion and  force,  so  that  if  a  given  amount  of 
matter  be  moved  with  different  velocities  there 
will  be  an  ascertainable  amount  of  force  which 
each  respective  velocity  will  generate.  And 
there  is  a  mathematical  ratio  between  matter 
and  force,  so  that  with  the  same  motion  differ- 
ent quantities  of  matter  will  exert  correspond- 
ingly different  degrees  of  force.  And  if  rings 
could  be  detached  at  all  from  the  hypothetical 
cosmical  sphere  there  must  be  a  law  governing 
the  operation. 

Just  here  we  insist  on  finding  one  of  the 


Planetary  Masses.  287 

"  marvelous  unformities,"  but  thus  far  we 
have  found  marvelous  diversities  and  discrep- 
ancies instead.  Will  they  continue?  We 
were  following  the  gradation  of  planetary 
masses,  and  found  ourselves  on  an  ascending 
scale.  We  pass  from  Jupiter  to  Mars.  What 
an  abrupt  reversal  of  the  order !  The  grada- 
tion is  utterly  destroyed.  Jupiter  is  equal  to 
twenty-four  hundred  such  bodies  as  Mars. 

The  density  of  the  cosmical  matter  out  of 
which  Mars  was  separated  was  twenty-seven 
times  as  great  as  that  out  of  which  Jupiter 
came.  But  the  rate  of  the  axial  rotation  was 
six  times  as  great.  What,  then,  is  the  cause 
of  this  falling  off  in  effects? 

It  seems  inexplicable.  There  is  now  the  high- 
est rate  of  motion  that  there  has  even  been,  and 
yet  here  is  the  smallest  product.  It  seems  to 
say  that  there  is  no  ratio  existing  between  the 
alleged  force  and  the  alleged  effect.  In  one 
case  the  increase  of  density  and  increase  of 
velocity  result  in  a  diminished  product.  In 
the  next  case  a  further  increase  of  density  and 
a  further  acceleration  of  velocity  result  in  a 
product  several  times  greater.  In  the  next 
case  a  further  increase  of  density  and  a  further 


288  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

acceleration  of  velocity  result  in  a  still  greater 
product.  But  in  the  next  case,  with  the  in- 
crease of  density  and  acceleration  of  velocity, 
there  is  the  merest  fraction  of  the  last  result. 

We  have  passed  over  the  asteroids.  They 
would  exhibit  the  same  startling  disparity 
between  the  force  employed  and  the  work  ac- 
complished. Coming  on  to  the  earth,  we  see 
another  reversal  of  the  order.  The  velocity  is 
greater,  the  density  is  greater,  and  the  result 
is  greater.  But  again  it  is  reversed  at  Venus. 
There,  again,  the  velocity  is  greater  and  the 
density  is  greater,  but  the  result  is  less.  And 
thus  we  are  compelled  to  pronounce  again, 
"There  appears  to  be  no  philosophy  in  this 
nebular  theory." 

That  the  peripheral  portion  of  an  aeriform 
body  could  be  cast  off  at  all  by  the  centrifugal 
force  has  never  been  shown.  But  if  there  be 
a  point  in  the  acceleration  of  the  velocity  of  a 
rotating  aeriform  body  at  which  the  centrifugal 
force  is  a  detaching  force,  that  point  must  be 
mathematically  fixed,  though  we  may  not 
know  where  it  is.  But  if  it  be  fixed,  the  same 
force  acting  on  the  same  matter  under  the 
same  conditions  will  produce  the  same  uni- 


Planetary  Masses.  289 

form  effects.  If  the  condition  of  the  mat- 
ter change,  and  the  velocity  of  the  motion 
remain  unchanged,  and  all  the  other  condi- 
tions remain  unchanged,  then  if  the  result 
be  changed  we  can  only  account  for  it  by 
alleging  the  change  in  the  condition  of  the 
matter.  Such  a  change  is  the  increase  of 
density. 

We  know  that  the  increase  of  velocity  can- 
not diminish  the  centrifugal  force,  but  must 
increase  it.  Increase  of  force  must  increase 
production,  unless  there  be  a  corresponding 
increase  of  resistance.  If  the  increase  of  den- 
sity be  such  corresponding  increase  of  resist- 
ance, we  cannot  account  for  the  tremendous 
masses  of  Saturn  and  Jupiter.  If  the  increase 
of  density  be  not  such  corresponding  increase 
of  resistance,  we  cannot  account  for  the  small- 
ness  of  the  masses  of  Mars,  Earth,  Venus,  and 
Mercury.  In  any  event  we  cannot  reconcile 
the  inconstancy  of  results  with  the  known 
facts  of  motion  and  density. 

The  actual  masses  of  the  planets  are  not 
what  they  must  be  if  they  were  produced  by 
the  centrifugal  force  out  of  a  revolving  mass  of 

aeriform  matter.     We  were  assured  that  mar- 
19 


290  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

velous  uniformities  existed,  but  we  have  found 
unaccountable  diversities.  The  supposed  uni- 
formities were  considered  a  powerful  argument 
for  the  nebular  theory.  What  do  the  unac- 
countable diversities  show? 

We  are  obliged  to  conclude  that  the  nebular 
theory  lacks  all  the  elements  of  credibility. 
It  is  at  variance  with  astronomical  facts.  It  is 
destitute  of  philosophical  consistency.  It  as- 
sumes every  thing  that  ought  to  be  demon- 
strated'. It  deals  in  "  glittering  generalities  " 
where  it  ought  to  go  into  minute  details.  It 
ignores  the  mathematical  relation  of  forces  and 
effects.  In  fine,  its  data  are  intangible,  incon- 
gruous, and  impertinent  to  its  conclusions. 
Never  in  the  history  of  science  was  theory  more 
pretentious.  Never  did  theory  less  justify  its 
pretension. 

It  has  unquestionably  the  patronage  of 
great  names,  so  that  it  may  seem  to  be  un- 
thinking temerity  to  challenge  it.  Nor  have 
we  done  so  hastily.  A  somewhat  careful 
study  of  the  subject  for  thirty  years  has  only 
deepened  our  conviction  of  the  worthlessness 
of  the  theory  as  a  history  of  the  origin  of 
worlds. 


Planetary  Masses.  291 

We  have  read  with  candid  interest  the  ex- 
positions of  it  given  by  its  advocates.  With 
them  we  have  hailed  with  pleasure  the  new 
discoveries  that  were  supposed  to  shed  light 
on  the  subject.  But  we  have  been  constantly 
amazed  to  see  how  much  learned  men  will  take 
for  granted,  and  how  little  they  will  feel  the 
force  of  great  facts  when  they  glance  at  them 
through  the  colored  medium  of  a  theory.  We 
have  the  profoundest  respect  for  men  of  scien- 
tific culture.  They  are  the  honored  leaders  of 
public  thought.  We  would  not  pluck  a  single 
garland  from  the  brow  of  one  of  these  men. 
But  we  know  of  no  infallibility.  And  that 
dogmatic  dictum  which  imposes  a  religious 
faith  and  anathematizes  all  who  dissent,  is  no 
more  repufsive  and  monstrous  than  the  equally 
dogmatic  prescription  of  crude  and  extrav- 
agant fancies  under  the  fascinating  caption  of 
Popular  Science. 

If  assumptions  were  demonstrations,  then 
would  the  nebular  theory  be  demonstrated.  If 
confident  assertion  were  the  test  of  credibility, 
then  we  must  confess  that  the  theory  is  cred- 
ible. The  one  thing  in  which  its  advocates 
excel  is  florid  rhetoric.  Their  writings  glow 


292  THE  MODERN  GENESIS. 

with  imagery  of  transcendent  beauty,  and  it  is 
not  strange  that  in  "  Popular  Science  "  it  has 
the  chief  place  assigned  it.  As  a  theory  of 
development  it  may  properly  precede  that  of 
Darwin  touching  living  forms.  Unsupported 
itself,  it  can  only  leave  that  to  be  examined  on 
its  own  independent  merits. 

Winchell  says  of  the  nebular  theory :  "  This 
doctrine  has  earned  unquestioning  acceptance 
simply  because  it  accords  with  all  the  phe- 
nomena." 

We  have  shown  that  it  accords  with  few,  if 
any,  of  the  phenomena. 

Again,   Winchell   says:    "  Occasionally   we 
hear  a  dissenting  voice,  but  it  proceeds,  almost 
always,  from  persons  who,  whatever  their  em- 
inence in  theology  or  letters,  have  little  author-  . 
ity  in  matters  of  scientific  opinion." 

We  refer  to  this  remark  for  one  purpose 
only,  and  that  is  to  say,  we  do  not  wish  any 
man  to  rest  in  our  opinions.  We  have  under- 
taken to  look  at  facts  as  they  are  in  nature. 
We  announce  no  opinions  except  as  the  facts 
seem  to  point.  We  invite  a  consideration  of 
the  arguments  based  on  the  facts,  without 
regard  to  any  theological  or  other  than  scien- 


Planetary  Masses.  293 

tific  results.  Let  us  know  the  truth  as  nature 
herself  teaches  the  truth  If  any  theology  can- 
not abide  the  truth,  let  it  suffer.  We  shall 
shed  no  tears  for  it.  We  quote  no  book  against 
the  nebular  theory  but  the  open  volume  of  nature. 
We  urge  against  it  no  laws  that  we  find  not  in 
nature's  code. 


INDEX. 


Arago,  views  respecting  recent  lunar  eruption,  196. 
Artesian  wells,  temperature  of,  at  different  depths,  168. 
Asteroids,  what  ?  76. 

"        great  number  of,  101. 

"         Pallas,  inclination  of  the  orbital  plane,  101. 
masses  of,  288. 

Centrifugal  force,  defined,  63. 

"       ratio  of,  to  rate  of  motion,  63. 

"  "        direction  of,  92. 

"  "       effect  of,  on  a  sphere,  65. 

Comets,  theoretical  origin  of,  101. 

"       direction  of  the  motion  of,  102. 
Cosmical  History,  tentative  exhibits  of,  31. 

Density  of  the  original  nebulous  sphere,  38. 
"      of  the  planets,  117. 
"       theoretical  gradation  of,  120. 
"       original,  relative,  of  the  planets,  123. 
"       of  Neptune  and  Uranus  compared,  126. 
"       of  Uranus  and  Saturn  compared,  127. 
"       of  Saturn  and  Jupiter  compared,  128. 

of  the  sun  and  the  earth  compared,  232. 
"       effect  of,  on  ring  formation,  282. 

Earth,  condition  of  its  interior,  153. 

"      views  of  Hunt,  Hopkins,  and  Scrope,  184. 
"      views  of  Lyell,  169. 
"      views  of  Poisson,  161. 


296  INDEX. 

Gradation,  theoretical,  of  densities,  120. 

"          theoretical,  of  planetary  masses,  276. 

Hopkins,  on  the  thickness  of  the  earth's  crust,  170. 
Ilerschell,  Sir  William,  discovery  of  nebulae,  18. 
"  "          •      respecting  the  sun,  213. 

Herschell,  Sir  John,  on  the  temperature  of  the  sun,  222. 
Helmholtz,  on  the  maintenance  of  the  sun's  heat,  35. 

"         on  the   density  of  the  original  nebulous  sphere, 

38. 

"         on  the  original  motion  of  rotation,  44. 
"         on  the  original  store  of  force,  138. 
Hunt,  Sterry,  on  first  chemical  combinations,  145. 

"  "       on     chemical     relations    of    intensely    heated 

matter,  42. 

Kirchhoff,  on  the  physical  constitution  of  the  sun,  215. 
Lockyer,  on  the  physical  constitution  of  the  sun,  218. 

Moon,  present  condition  of  the,  197. 
"       motions  of,  200. 
"       temperature  of,  204. 
"       occultation  of  Jupiter  by,  204. 

Nebulae,  discoveries  of,  17. 

"         classified  by  Herschell,  18. 

"         sun  through  Lord  Ross's  telescope,  19. 
Nebular  theory,  statement  of  the,  by  Winchell,  22. 
"       statement  of  the,  by  Wells,  24. 

Orbital  periods  of  the  planets,  a  clew  to  the  original  axial  ro- 
tation, 78. 
"        constancy  of,  79. 

Planetary  motions,  rate  of,  87. 

direction  of,  88. 


INDEX.  297 

Planetary  motions,  irreconcilable  with  nebular  theory,  109. 
Plateau,  interesting  experiment  of,  59. 

Rings,  theory  of  formation  of,  Winchell,  55. 
"       discussion  of  the  theory,  57. 
"       of  Saturn,  an  optical  illusion,  59. 
Rotary  motion  in  the  solar  system,  36. 

"         theory  of  the  origin  of,  Winchell,  22. 
"         theory  of  the  origin  of,  Wells,  28. 
"         theory  of  the  origin  of,  Spencer,  52. 
"        original  must  be  assumed,  44. 

Satellites  of  Uranus  and  Neptune,  103. 

Schellen,  elements  present  in  the  sun,  219. 

Sechi,  conjecture  of,  respecting  aqueous  vapor  in  the  sun,  2l8. 

Sun,  situation  of,  as  center  of  the  planetary  system,  IOO. 

"    volume  and  mass  of  the,  2IO. 

"    axial  rotation  of  the,  97. 

"     proper  motion  of,  in  space,  76. 

"     physical  constitution  of  the,  211. 

"     temperature  of,  how  maintained,  223. 

"     elements  present  in  the,  219. 

Temperature,  defined,  147. 

of  original  world  stuff,  Winchell,  22. 
"  of  original  world  stuff,  Helmholtz,  139. 

"  of  the  sun,  how  maintained,  223. 

increase  of,  in  mines  and  wells,  165. 
Tyndall,  on  the  original  energy,  44. 
"         on  the  destiny  of  planets,  227. 

Velocities,  actual,  in  the  solar  system,  75. 
table  of,  80. 

Wells,  David  A.,  statement  of  nebular  theory,  24. 

"  "  on  the  internal  condition  of  the  earth,  169. 

Wells,  artesian,  temperature  of,  at  different  depths,  168. 


298  INDEX. 

Whirlpool,  theory  of  the,  45. 

Wilson,  views  of,  respecting  the  sun,  213. 

Winchell,  statement  of  nebular  theory,  22. 

"         tentative  exhibit  of  cosmical  history,  31. 

"         theory  of  ring  formations,  55. 

"         theory  of  the  sun,  225. 

Young,  views  respecting  a  liquid  solar  crust,  219. 
Zodiacal  light,  230. 


of 
805  BROADWAY,  N.  Y. 


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I2mo.  Price,  75  cents.  Second  Series,  price,  $i. 

Mission  of  the  Spirit  ;  or,  The  Office  and  Work  of  the 
Comforter  in  Human  Redemption.  By  Rev.  L.  R.  Dunn. 
I2ino.  Price,  $i  25. 

Mystery  of  Suffering,  and  other  Discourses.  By  E.  De 
Pressense,  D.D.  I2mo.  Price,  $i  25. 

Principles  of  a  System  of  Philosophy.  An  Essay  toward 
Solving  some  of  the  More  Difficult  Questions  in  Metaphys- 
ics and  Religion.  By  A.  Bierbower,  A.M.  I2mo.  Price, 
$125. 


of    jVeljioii   & 
805  BROADWAY,  N.  Y. 


AYESHA.  A  Tale  of  the  Times  of  Mohammed.  By 
Emma  Leslie.  Illustrated  I2mo.  Price,  $i  50. 

FLAVIA  ;  or,  Loyal  to  the  End.  A  Tale  of  the  Church 
in  the  Second  Century.  By  Emma  Leslie.  Illustrated 
I2mo.  Price,  $i  50. 

GLAUCIA.  A  Story  of  Athens  in  the  First  Century.  By 
Emma  Leslie.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  Price,  $i  50. 

LEOFWINE,  THE  SAXON.  A  Story  of  Hopes  and 
Struggles.  By  Emma  Leslie.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  Price, 
$i  50. 

ELFREDA.  A  Sequel  to  Leofwine.  By  Emma  Leslie. 
Illustrated.  I2mo.  Price,  $i  50. 

QUADRATUS.  A  Tale  of  the  World  in  the  Church.  By 
Emma  Leslie.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  Price,  $i  50. 

SUNSHINE  OF  BLACKPOOL.  By  Emma  Leslie. 
Price,  $i. 

HOPE  RAYMOND  ;  or,  What  is  Truth.  By  Mrs.  E. 
J.  Richmond.  Illustrated.  Large  i6mo.  Price,  $i. 

THE  TWO  PATHS.      By  Mrs.  E.  J.  Richmond.     Price, 

$i. 

MEHETABEL.  A  Story  of  the  Revolution,  By  Mrs. 
H.  C.  Gardner.  Illustrated.  Large  l6mo.  Price,  $i  25. 

MORAG  ;  a  Story  of  Highland  Life.     I2mo.     Price,  $r  25. 

MOTHER,  HOME,  AND  HEAVEN.  A  Collection  of 
Poems.  Edited  by  Mrs.  J.  P.  Newman.  Square  i8mo. 
Gilt  edge.  Price,  $i  50. 

DEWDROPS  AND  SUNSHINE.  A  Collection  of 
Poems  about  Little  Children.  Edited  by  Mrs  J.  P.  New- 
man. Square  i8mo.  Gilt  edge.  Price,  $i  50. 

JACQUELINE.  A  Story  of  the  Reformation  in  Holland. 
By  Airs.  Hardy.  Four  Illustrations.  i6mo.  Price,  80  cents. 

LUCIEN  GUGLIERI.  By  Mary  B.  Lee.  i6mo. 
Price,  60  cents. 

LILIAN.  A  Story  of  the  Days  of  Martyrdom  in  England 
Three  Hundred  Years  ago.  i6mo.  Price,  90  cents. 


of 
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ARCTIC  HEROES.  Facts  and  Incidents  of  Arctic  Ex- 
plorations.  From  the  Earliest  Voyages  to  the  Discoveries 
of  Sir  John  Franklin,  embracing  Sketches  of  Commercial 
and  Religious  Results.  By  Rev.  Z.  A.  Mudge.  Illustrated. 
I2mo.  Price,  $i  25. 

NORTH-POLE  VOYAGES.  Embracing  Sketches  of 
the  Important  Facts  and  Incidents  in  the  latest  American 
Efforts  to  reach  the  North  Pole,  from  the  Second  Grinnell 
Expedition  to  the  Polaris.  By  Rev.  Z.  A.  Mudge.  l6mo. 
Price,  $ 

THE  SQUIRE  OF  WALTON  HALL  ;  or,  Sketches 
and  Incidents  from  the  Life  of  Charles  Waterton,  Esq.,  the 
Adventurous  Traveler  and  Daring  Naturalist.  By  Daniel 
Wise,  D.D.  Six  Illustrations.  Price,  $1  25. 

JOHN  WINTHROP  AND  THE  GREAT  COLONY; 
or,  Sketches  of  the  Settlement  of  Boston  and  of  the  more 
Prominent  Persons  connected  with  the  Massachusetts  Col- 
ony. By  Charles  K.  True,  D.D.  Price,  $1. 

SUMMER  DAYS  ON  THE  HUDSON.  The  Story 
of  a  Pleasure  Tour  from  Sandy  Hook  to  the  Saranac  Lakes, 
including  Incidents  of  Travel,  Legends,  Historical  Anec- 
dotes, Sketches  of  Scenery,  etc.  By  Daniel  Wise,  D.D. 
Illustrated  by  109  Engravings.  Price,  $2. 

GEMS  OF  INDIA;  or,  Sketches  of  Distinguished  Hindoo 
and  Mahomedan  Women.  By  Mrs.  E.  J.  Humphrey. 
Illustrated.  I2mo.  Price,  $i  25. 

SIGHTS  AND  INSIGHTS;  or.  Knowledge  by  Travel. 
By  Rev.  Henry  W.  Warren.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  Price, 

$i  25. 

GLIMPSES  OF  OUR  LAKE  REGION  IN  1863, 
and  other  Papers.  By  Mrs.  H.  C.  Gardner.  I2mo.  Price, 
$i  50. 

SIX  YEARS  IN  INDIA  ;  or,  Sketches  of  India  and  its 
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Letters  to  her  Mother.  By  Mrs.  E.  J.  Humphrey.  Eight 
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LIVINGSTONE  IN  AFRICA.  By  Rev.  S.  A.  W. 
Jewett.  I2mo.  Price,  $1  50. 


of      el^on  & 
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Discontent,  and  other  Stories.  By  Mrs.  H.  C.  Gardner. 
I2mo.  Price,  $i  25. 

Little  Foxes.  By  the  Author  of  "  How  Marjorie  Watched." 
Illustrated.  Large  i6mo.  Price,  90  cents. 

Helena's  Cloud  with  the  Silver  Lining.  By  the  Author 
of  "  How  Marjorie  Watched,"  etc.  Price,  90  cents. 

Little  Princess,  and  other  Stories,  Chiefly  about  Christ- 
mas. By  "  Aunt  Hattie."  i8mo.  Price,  65  cents. 

Peter  the  Apprentice.  An  Historical  Tale  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  England.  i6mo.  Price,  90  cents. 

Romance  Without  Fiction  ;  or,  Sketches  from  the  Port- 
folio of  an  Old  Missionary.  By  Rev.  Henry  Bleby.  I2mo. 
Price,  $i  75. 

Dora  Hamilton  ;  or,  Sunshine  and  Shadow.     i6mo.     Price, 

90  cents. 

Dying  Saviour  and  the  Gipsy  Girl.     i8mo.     Price,  50  cts. 
Bessie  and  Her  Spanish  Friends.     By  the    Author   of 

"  Faithful,  but  not  Famous,"  etc.     i6mo.     Price,  90  cents. 
Ben  and  Bentie  Series.     School  Life  of  Ben  and  Bentie. 

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True  Stories  of  the  American  Fathers.     For  the  Girls 

and  Boys  all  over  the  Land.     By  Miss  Rebecca  M'Conkey. 

Illustrated.     I2mo.     Price,  $1  50. 
Martyrs  of  the  Catacombs.     i6mo.     Price,  90  cents. 
Anna  Lavater.     A  Picture  of  Swiss  Pastoral  Life   in  the 

Last  Century.     By  Rev.  W.  Ziethe.     I2mo.     Price,  $i. 
A  Visit  to  Aunt    Agnes.      Illustrated.     Tinted.     Square 

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SuzannaDeL'Orme.     A  Story  of  Huguenot  Times.     I2mo. 

Price,  $i  25. 
Talks  with  Girls.     By    Augusta   Lamed.     I2mo.     Price, 

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Story  of  a  Pocket  Bible.    Illustrated.    I2mo.    Price,  $i  25. 
True   Stories  of  Real   Pets  ;  or,    Friends    in    Furs   and 

Feathers.     Illustrated.     Square  i6mo.     Price,  $i  25. 
Rosedale.     A  Story  of  Self-  Denial.     By  Mrs.  H.  C.  Gard- 

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Publication^  of 

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Renata  of  Este.     From  the   German  of  Rev.  Carl  Strack. 

By  Catherine  E.  Hurst.     I2mo.     Price,  $i  25. 
The    Little    Trowel.      By    Edith    Waddy.     Illustrated. 

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Story   of  a    Pocket    Bible.     Illustrated.     I2mo.     Price, 

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Half  Hours  with  Old  Humphrey.     By  George  Mogridge. 

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John    Richmand  ;     or,    a   Sister's   Love.     By    T.  Taylor. 

Illustrated.     I2mo.     Price,  $i. 
Fraulein  Mina  ;  or,  Life  in  an  American  German  Family 

By  Miss  Mary  H.  Norris.     I2mo.     Price,  $1  25. 
Round  the  Grange  Farm  ;  or,  Good  Old  Times.     Stories 

of  Scottish    Life.     By  Jean  L.  Watson.     Six  Illustrations. 

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Shepherd-King.     By    A.    L.    O.   E.     Illustrated.     I2mo. 

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Stony    Road.     A   Scottish  Story  from  Real  Life.     I2mo. 

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Sunday  Afternoons.     A  Book  for  Little  People.     By  E.  F. 

Burr,  D.D.     i6mo.     Price,  75  cents. 
Temptation   and    Triumph.     By  Virginia  F.  Townsend. 

Revised.     I2mo.     Price,  $1  2$. 
My  Uncle  Toby.     His  Table  Talks  and  Reflections.     By 

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Victoria,     with     other   Poems.     By    S.    I.    Henry.     I2mo. 

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Village  Blacksmith.     i8mo.     Price,  75  cents. 
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Through    the    Dark  to  the   Day.     A  Story.    By    Mrs. 

Jennie  F.  Willing.     I2mo.     Price,  $1  50. 


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